LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. 



UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



FEEDING ANIMALS: 

A PRACTICAL WORK 

UPON 

THE LAWS OF ANIMAL GROWTH 

SPECIALLY APPLIED TO 



THE REARING AND FEEDING OF HORSES, CA TTLE, 
DAIRY COWS, SHEEP AND SWINE. 



By 
ELLIOTT W. STEWART, 

ONE OF THE EDITORS OF THE NATIONAL LIVE STOCK JOURNAL; LATE 

NON-RESIDENT PROFESSOR OF THE PRINCIPLES OF 

AGRICULTURE IN CORNELL UNIVERSITY. 



WITH ILLUSTRATIONS. 





LAKE VIEW: 
PUBLISHED BY THE AUTHOR, 

Erie County, New York, 
18S3. 



Copyright bv the Author. 
All Rights Reserved. 



n r^ The Courier Company, 

O V' EUctrotyfcrs, Printers and Binders, 

<J /o Ar Buffalo, N. Y. 



c,<t^ 



PREFACE. 



Thirty years ago, to recruit his health, the author 
removed from professional labor in the city to a farm 
in the country. Having a liking for stock, he naturally 
turned his attention early to this branch of farming. 
And not being able to find much printed instruction 
upon the subject of feeding any class of stock, he 
began early to experiment for himself and to keep a 
record of his experiments. 

And as these materials grew upon his hands, the 
author conceived the idea of writing and publishing 
a book upon subjects discussed in this, unless some 
one should anticipate him in this needed service to the 
great live stock interest. It will thus be seen that the 
author has taken leisurely to his work ; and it would 
give him great pleasure if he could believe that his 
work is as ripe and complete as the years it has been 
growing upon his hands. 

The first methodical preparation of this work began 
in January, 1877, in a series of articles published in the 
National Live Stock Journal under the general title to 
this book — Feeding Animals, — signed, Alimentation. 



4 PEEFACE. 

These extended to 41 articles, and mapped out the 
frame-work of the book. But the author drew also, 
to some extent, upon articles which he had written 
for the Country Gentleman, and Rural New Yorker, 
and perhaps other papers, using these in the details of 
the book. 

The first three chapters were written last, as neces- 
sary preliminary knowledge to the full understanding 
of the discussions of the work. 

Chemical research has thrown much light upon the 
feeder's art, and the author has endeavored to give the 
latest and fullest analyses of grasses, forage plants, 
grains, and by-products of grains, used as stock foods, 
to be found in any one book extant. 

Stock barns have become so important an element 
in successful stock-feeding, that the author has given a 
pretty thorough discussion of this topic, with full illus- 
trations of the octagonal form of barn. The principles 
of feeding are discussed in a separate chapter ; then 
each class of stock is taken up separately, and the 
method of feeding and management from birth to 
commercial age fully explained. A chapter on Dairy 
Cattle goes into the selection and management of this 
very important class of farm stock. 

The author has not ventured into the discussion 
of veterinary remedies, contenting himself with the 
description of a few simple water remedies, endeav- 
oring to impress the reader with the necessity of 
preventing diseases rather than of curing them. 



PREFACE. 5 

The aim of the author throughout has been to 
discuss all matters from the practical rather than the 
theoretical stand-point ; and his work, such as it is, is 
herewith presented to the public, hoping that its 
suggestions may lighten the labor and increase the 
profits of, at least, some who intelligently cultivate 
the great live stock specialty. 

The author takes pleasure in acknowledging his 
obligations to many writers upon the topics here dis- 
cussed, but he has endeavored to give due credit to 
each for the matter thus used. 

Ease of reference being a matter of great importance 
in a book of varied contents, the author has endeavored 
to make a very full analytical index, which will enable 
the reader easily to find any matter discussed in the 
book. 



CO]N'TENTS. 



INTRODUCTION. 

Page. 

Number of Horses— Cattle— Sheep— Swine — Capital invested— Importance of 

understanding all the Economies of Feeding— Science of Feeding 13 

CHAPTER I. 

Composition of Animal Bodies— Organic Elements— Inorganic Elements— The 
Blood— Its Composition— Fleshy Parts — Composition — Skin, Hair, Horn, 
Hoof, Wool, Fat — Composition — Bones— Composition— Composition of the 
Bodies of Ten Animals— Proportions of the various parts of Cattle, Sheep 
and Swine 19 

CHAPTER n. 

A Nutrient— Ration— Nitrogenous Nutrients— Protein— Vegetable Albumen — 
Casein and Fibrine— Flesh-forming Principles— Non -nitrogenous Nutrients 
—Carbo-hydrates— Cellulose— Effect of Heat upon Woody Fiber— Effect of 
Acid upon it— Digestibility of Cellulose— Starch— Dextrine— Sugars— The 
Pectin Substances — Fats —Inorganic Nutrients— Phosphates— Magnesia- 
Soda, Chlorides of Sodium— Oxide of Iron— Potash— Respiratory Food- 
Principles of Respiration— Carbonic Acid— Albuminoids— Hydrogen— Gluten 
— Albumen— Legumin — Muscles and CartUages — Earthy Phosphates— Saline 
Substances — Sulphates 30 

CHAPTER m. 

Digestion— Digestion begins in the Mouth— Mastication, Salivary Glands and 
the Saliva— Mouth — Tongue — Palate— Roof of Mouth — Cheeks— Parotid 
Gland — Maxillary or Sub-maxillary Gland- Sub-lingual Gland— Molar Glands 
—The Labial and Palatine Glands— Ptyalin— Stomach of Solipeds— Stomach 
of Horse— Peritoneum— Gastric juice— Pylorus — Stomachs of Ruminants 
and their Functions — Flesh Feeders — First Stomach — Second Stomach — 
CEsophagean Demi-canal — Third Stomach— Fourth Stomach — Functions — 



8 CONTENTS. 

Paqb. 

Rumination— Conditions Essential— Use of Fourth Stomacli— Gastric Diges- 
tion—Intestinal Digestion — Coecum — The Colon— The Kectuni— Intestines 
of Euminants— Intestines of the Pig— Other Organs annexed to the Di- 
gestive Canal— The Liver— Pancreas— The Spleen— Circulation— The Pulse 
— In Disease— Jerking Pulse— Intermitteut—Unequal—Palpitation — Respi- 
ration—The Nostrils— Trachea—Bronchi — Thorax— The Lungs— Respira- 
tory Action of the Skin— Animal Heat— Urinary Organs— The Kidneys — 
Ureters — Bladder— Excretions — Respiratory Products— Carbon Excreted — 
Excretion of Ash Constituents— Of Potash— Value of Manure 45 

CHAPTER IV. 

Stock Barns— Shelter for Cattle— Should be used to Shelter— Form of Barn- 
Long Parallelogram— Square— Octagon— Duo-decagon— Sex-decagon— Octa- 
gon Basement— Basement laid out in a Circle — Self-cleaning Stables— Plat- 
form— Grating— Saving of Manure— Durability — Moderate Cost— The Octa- 
gon adapted to all-sized Farms— A Fifty-foot Octagon— Schedule— Granary 
—Basement Wall for Stables — Concrete Wall— Preparations for laying out 
Wall — How to lay out an Octagonal Wall— Constructing Boxes for the Wall 
— Proportions ior Water-lime Concrete— New way of Building Long Barns 
— Great Economy and Convenience of this Improvement— Barns for 1,000 
Head of Cattle — Octagonal Eight-winged Barn — Square-cross Barn — Details 
of Construction — Basement for Cattle — Laying out Basement — Sheep Barns 
—Double Sheep Rack— Sheep Shelter 84 

CHAPTER V. 

Principles of Alimentation— Effect of Pood upon Flavor of Flesh— Deer Domes- 
ticated—How Food will change the Flavor of Flesh— High-flavored Milk- 
Animal Dependent upon its Food for Quality— Early Maturity— Full Devel- 
opment— Eft'ect of Careful and Judicious Breeding— In the Natural State — 
Profitable Feeding must be done before Maturity — Instructive Experiments 
— Study the Nature of the Animal we Feed— Improper Feeding— How to 
Feed Young Animals— Average Composition of Milk— Formation of Mus- 
cles, Nerves, Brain, Skin, Hair, Hoofs and Horns — Choice of Foods to re- 
place Milk — Table of Grains — Corn an Improper Food to be given Alone — 
Wheat MiddUngs preferable to Bran for the Young 126 

CHAPTER VI. 

Stock Foods— The Basis of German Values of Pood— Analysis of American Cat- 
tle Foods— Chemical Composition at Different Stages— Description of 
Grasses— Desmodium— Japan Clover— Mexican Clover — Satin Grass— Shra- 
der's Grass— Bermuda Grass— Crab Grasses— Texas Millet— Quack Grass — 
Wire Grass — Gama Grass — Grama Grass— Average Composition and Money 
Value of Feeding Stufl's, by Dr. Wolll', for Germany — Comments on Taiiles 
— Tables of Values— Waste Products— Corn Starch Feed— Brewers' Grains 
— Malt Sprouts— Meat Scrap— Fish Scrap— Quality of Timothy and Clover — 
Must be Cut before Blossoming 143 



CONTENTS. • 9 

CHAPTER YU. 

Page. 
Soiling— Saving Land— How Waste of Pood is Caused- One Acre equal to 
Three— Saving Fences— Saving Food — Weeds and Thistles utilized— Saving 
Manure— Effect upon Health and Condition — Effect of Soiling upon Milk — 
Soiling Experiments — Continuous Milk Production— Effect on Meat Produc- 
tion—Soiling and Grain Feeding Combined— Tlie Great Need of Eastern 
Farms— Objections to Soiling — Labor— An Experiment — Labor of Eepairlng 
Fences Saved — Cost of Labor for One Hundred Head— What One Man can 
Do— Soiling Crops— Winter Eye— Ked Clover— Orchard Grass — Lucerne — 
Timothy and Large Clover — Alsike, Clover and Timothy — Green Oats — Peas 
and Oats— Common Millet — Hungarian Grass — Italian Millet- Vetch— Fod- 
der Corn— Sorghum— How to Use the Green Crops— Soiling Horses— Soil- 
ing Cattle— Eack for Cattle— Cattle Tie— Soiling Cows— Soiling Sheep- 
Portable Hurdle Fence— Best Plan for Eaising Lambs— Soiling Extermi- 
nates Weeds— How to Introduce Soiling— It should be Carefully Considered 
-Winter Soiling— Ensilage— The System Tested— Enables Carrying More 
Stock — Many Things in Favor— Summer Growth all the Year r'jund- Silos — 
Plan of Silo— Triple Silo — Building the Silo— Preparing the Concrete— How 
to Build with Quicklime— Progress of Ensilage in the United States — 
Ensilage Congress — Cost of Ensilage — Feeding Animals — Ensilage as a Com- 
plete Eation— Table of Fodder Plants— Eed Clover as an Ensilage Crop- 
Ensilage Crops— Winter Eye— Millet— Peas and Oats— Timothy and Late 
Clover— Sorghum Cane— Storing several Ensilage Crops together^Eation 
for Milk— Cutting Crops and Filling Silo 167 

CHAPTEE Vni. 

Cattle-Feeding— How to Feed the Young Calf— Flax-seed Gruel, how made— 
Skim-milk Eation for Calf— Flax-seed and Oat Meal Boiled, mixed with 
Milk — Experiments— Cost of a Calf at One Year — Whey Eation for the 
Calf— Prof. Voelcher's Analysis of Whey— What is Needed to Build the 
Bones — Hay-tea Eations for C.ilves — What Age for Beef— Early Maturity^ 
Baby Beef— Cost of a "Baby Bullock "—Cost of American Baby Steer- 
Quality of Young Beef— The Economy of Young Beef— Effect of Age upon 
Gain pei- day— Chicago Fat Stock Shows— Tables— Cost of Production — 
Tables— English View of Cost of Beef— Fattening Oxen— Cost of Gain- 
Value of Manure of Fattening Cattle— Cost of Beef— Steaming the Eations 
—Whole Cost of the Bullock— Growing Cattle for Beef— Home-bred Cattle 
— Summer Feeding— Management of Pastures— Blue Grass— Wire Grass — 
Meadow Grass— Meadow Fescue — Sheep Fescue — Orchard Grass — Herds 
Grass— Sweet-scented Vernal Grass— Temporary Pastures— What Grasses 
may be Used— Full Feeding in Summer— Corn as a Single Diet— Cattle- 
feeding in Cold Weather— Warm Stables— Out Door Feedings— German 
Feeding Standard — Cattle Eations— Tables— Eations for Miluh Cow— Clover 
and Coin Kations for Fattening Cattle — Waste Products in Cattle Eations — 
Rations for Fatteumg Cattle — Linseed and Cottonseed Cake — Eations for 
Oxen at Hard Work — How to Feed the Corn Crop — Mode of Cutting and 
Handling— Improvement of the Corn Kation — Beef to the Acre of Corn-- 
Condimental Foods— Analysis— Feeding on Small Farms— Garden Truck 
Farms , , 233 



10 CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER IX. 

Page. 

Feeding Dairy Cattle— Selecting D<airy Cows— Besides Fine Proportions they 
must have Milking Qualities— A Thoroughbred Male slionld always be 
Used— Size of Dairy Cows— Large or Small Cows the Best— The Respective 
Dairies of Messrs. Boies, Bronsou and Blodgett— Food and Size of Dairy 
Cows— With Common Feed and Care— With Best Feed and Care— Milk 
Ration at Eldena— Tables— Large Cows are more Economical Milk Pro- 
ducers—Feeding Dairy Cattle— Special Feeding for Milk— Experiments of 
Feeding Heifer— German Experiments— The Cow as a food producer— Com- 
position of 6,000 lbs. of Milk— How Fat is Produced— Variety of Food for 
Milk— English Practice— Fatten Cows in Milk— Value of Cow Manure- 
Food Production— American Rations for Milk— Tables— Water for Milch 
Cows— Pasturing Dairy Cows— Variety of Grasses— Extra Food to Fertilize 
Pastures 317 

CHAPTER X. 

Horses— Horse kept for his Muscle— Colt— Milk Ration for Colt— Food for the 
Dam— No Objection to Light Work— Colt should be Handled Daily— Weight 
and Growth of Foals— Tables— Boussingault's Experiments— Exercise for 
Colts— Food for Horses — Youatt's English Ration — German Experiments- 
Meadow Hay fully Digested — Crude Albuminoids — Nou-nitrogenous Con- 
stituents — Digestibility* of Winter Wheat Straw— Concentrated Feeding 
Stuffs— Result of Experiments— Standard Ration— Dr. Wolff's Experi- 
ments—Rations for Light Work— For Heavy Work — Practical Rations — 
Rations for Omnibus Horses — Ration of all Corn Meal and Hay — Grass, 
Peas and Oats Preferred— Bulky Food— Beans more Concentrated than 
Oats— Should Feed One-third Beans to Two-thirds Oats— Oats Contain as 
much Bulk of Fiber as Meal when Ground— Fibrous Food Necessaiiy— Pea 
Meal and Hay Adapted for Work— Corn Meal for Horses— Must be Fed 
Carefully— Table of Foods— Malt Sprouts as a Food— Tables of Rations for 
Horses of 1,000 pounds- Weight— Stage Companies' Method of Feeding— 
Not Much Salt Used— Tables of Rations of Different Lines— Stable Feeding 
during the Winter— Feeding for Fast Work— Colts should be Fed Well and 
Change of Food given Often— The Various Grains for Variety of Food— 
Oats— Barley— Rye— Millet— Meal— Peas— The Vetch— The Colt should be 
Handled at Frequent intervals, and should have Confidence in his Trainer, 361 

CHAPTER XI. 

Sheep— They must be Bred for Mutton as well as Wool— The General Improve- 
ment of Sheep in all Countries— Sheep Feeding in New Jersey— The Method 
of Pushing them to Early Market— Old System of Slow Growth and Late 
Maturity Abandoned— The Double Income— Six Sheep Kept in Place of 
One Cow— Early Maturity— Difference between Scanty and Full Feeding- 
Selection of Sheep for Breeding— Mutton should be the First Consideration, 
Wool the Second— The Best must be Selected, and the Defective Weeded 
Out— The Result of Crossing Southdowns and Merinos— Summer Feeding 
of Small Flocks— Bakewell's Method of Breeding— Hurdle Feeding- Mov- 
able Hurdle Fence Necessary— Fertilizing Land by Feeding Sheep upon it— 



CONTENTS. 11 

Page. 
Compensation for Food in Manure — Experiments with Sheep — Tables of 
Nitrogen and Ash Constituents— Composition of Solid and Liquid Excre- 
ment of Sheep Fed on Hay— Table of Foods — Value of Solid and Liquid 
Excrement— An Experiment— Sheep on Worn-out Lands — How Deterio- 
rated Lands may be Improved— Feeding Green Crops on the Land— Winter 
Rye — Winter Vetch — Vetch Second to Clover — Peas as a Pasture Crop- 
Peas will Flourish on a Variety of Soils— Oats are an Important Crop— Mil- 
let for Pasture -Roots for Sheep Feeding— Turnips and Beets— Rape- 
Ensilage for Winter Feeding — Managing a Flock — Regularity of Feeding — 
Experiments — English Sheep Feeding — Experiments with Roots — Grain and 
Grass — Feeding Young Lambs — German Experiments in Sheep Feeding — 
Table— Before Shearing — Cutting and Cooking Fodder for Sheep— Experi- 
ment with 35 Medium-sized Sheep— Another Experiment with 300 Sheep — 
Cost of Steaming 400 

. CHAPTER XII. 

Swine— Products of Pig Exported— Care of Breeding Sows— Clover and Grass 
proper Pood for Pigs— The Sow's Milk Richer than the Cow's— Weight of 
Pigs at Birth — Milk Yielded by Dam — Rations for Young Pigs — Corn Meal 
Mixed with Milk— Feeding Whey to Pigs— Grass as a Part of the Ration — 
Soiling System for Swine — Pig in Winter — Corn Meal as Pig Food — Swine 
House — Dr. Stetson's Explanations of his Piggery— Another Plan of Swine 
House— A Self-cleaning Pen— Cooking Hog Food— Method of Feeding- 
Arrangement for Applying Steam— No Storing Period — Fattening Period — 
Selecting Pigs for Fattening — Philosophy of Cooking Food — Double Value 
of Meal by Cooking— Will it Pay to Cook for Hogs?— Must be Fed in a 
Warm Atmosphere 458 

CHAPTER XIII. 

Water Remedies — Uses of Water in the Diseases of Cattle — The Udder 
Inflamed — Fever and Inflammation— Garget— Puerperal or Milk Fever — 
Water Treatment for Horses— Wounds— Bruises— Sprains — Simple Cut 
Wounds— Sprained Ankle- Treatment for Colic— Food Medicines 493 

APPENDIX... 

American Ensilage in England — Transporting Ensilage in Casks— Succulent 
Food Produces a Sound, Even Staple of Wool— Voelcker's Analysis and Re- 
port on Maize and Rye Ensilage — Effect of Ensilage on Havemeyer's Large 
Herd of Jerseys — Rye Ensilage Superior to Corn — Experiments at Hou:;h- 
ton Farm with Corn Ensilage vs. Dry Food 502 



II^TEODUOTIO]^. 



The live stock interest of the United States has ex- 
paucled so rapidly during the last two decades and has now 
reached such proportions as to lead every other agricultural 
industry. In fact, it may be said that most other branches 
of farming are merely incidental to the great live stock 
industry — that is, all our cereal grains and grasses, except 
wheat and rice, are raised with a special reference to their 
value as food for animals. 

That the importance and value of this great interest 
in agriculture may be apparent, we will glance at the 
statistics of each of its specialties, giving only the numbers 
and value of each class of live stock, without considering 
their annual income : 

HORSES AND MtTLES. 
1840. 1850. 1860. 18T0. 1880. 

Horses 4,000,000 4,3.36,719 6,S49,174 8,702,000 12,000,000 

Value in 1880 $740,000,000 

Mules 335,669 659,331 1,151,148 1,343,311 3,000,000 

Value in 1880 $140,000,000 

Total value, horses and mules $880,000,000 

These figures follow closely the census reports and those 
made by the Department of Agriculture for these periods. 

CATTLE. 

1850. 1860. 1870. 1880. 

Milch Cows 6,38.5,094 8,738,862 10,023,000 1.3,433,000 

Iq 1880 the number must reach 13,000,000, value $332,392,000 

Other cattle 11,993,763 16,911,475 18,348,581 23,982,.560 

And must now reach 35,000,000, value - $481,686,080 

Total value of cattle , $803,078,080 



14 INTEODUCTION. 

SHEEP. 

1850. 186.). 1870. 1880. 

21,732,229 22,471,275 28,477,951 40,000,000 

Value of sheep $95,600,000 

SWINE. 

1840. 1850. 1860. 1870. 1880. 

26,301,293 30,354,213 33,512,867 29,457,-500 47,683,951 

Value of swine $224,114,.500 

Total value of these four classes of live stock $2,002,792,580 

This, over two thousand millions, is the invested capital, 
and the yearly production is more than one thousand 
millions of dollars. We have from two to three times the 
number of cattle, in proportion to population, as compared 
with the principal countries of Europe, and from three to 
six times as many swine in proportion to population ; 
nearly three times the proportional number of horses of 
France, the German states or England. Eussia is the only 
country approximabing the United States in the proportion 
of horses. England, France and Germany equal the 
United States in the proportional number of sheep. 

It will thus be seen that the live stock industry of this 
country is already very great, but the small proportion of 
our land yet improved shows that live stock production is 
capable of almost indefinite extension ; and that this exten- 
sion must depend largely upon the intelligence and practical 
knowledge with which the business is pursued. It is evi- 
dent that a small saving in the cost of production will 
amount to very great figures when applied to such enor- 
mous aggregates. And when Ave consider the complicated 
nature of the animal system, and that tlie growth of the 
animal depends upon the supply of appropriate food, it 
becomes apparent that the successful prosecution of this 
business depends upon a sound theoretical and practical 
knowledge of the relation of food to animal growth. And 
yet when a novice, desirous of acquiring this knowledge, 
seeks aid from books which treat systematically and prac- 



INTKODUCTION". 15 

tically upon tliis most important subject, he finds only 
fragmentary hints here and there in books and agricultural 
journals. He will find books upon breeds of cattle, horses, 
sheep and swine — books upon the philosophy of breeding — 
but upon the philosophy and practice of feeding animals 
he will find nothing complete, even for a single class of 
animals. It is true we may find a very good exposition of 
the German experiments in Dr. Armsby's Manual of Cattle 
Feeding, but these experiments are not sufiiciently broad 
to cover the whole field, and have not yet been practically 
adapted to our needs. They are well worthy of our careful 
study, and we shall endeavor to show the extent of their 
application to American cattle feeding. 

As all farmers, from time immemorial, have been in the 
habit of feeding more or less animals, it has been taken 
for granted that this knowledge came by instinct, and 
required no study to obtain. When a superior animal was 
produced, an explanation was always sought in the breed — 
it was always charged to the blood. When anything is 
now said concerning the management of those famous 
breeders who developed the Long-horns and the Short-horns 
from the inferior animals they began with, their skill and 
genius in selecting the points to be improved and the 
animals to be coupled, rej)resenting these in greatest per- 
fection, are always dwelt upon with the highest admiration. 
Little else is mentioned. They forget the grand requisite 
of success, without which these celebrated breeders would 
have been little distinguished above their neighboring 
farmers, and that is — feeding. It may be laid down as an 
axiom, that breeding alone can produce nothing beyond 
what is inherent in the animals coupled and their an- 
cestors. Something never comes from nothing. It is food 
and management that makes a beautiful specimen of any 
strain of blood. A skillful feeder may often grow a more 
perfect individual animal out of a three-quarter blood 



16 INTRODUCTION. 

Short-horn than an indifferent feeder will out of the 
longest and most fashionably pedigreed Short-horn. 

Darwin expresses the opinion that food is one of the 
most powerful causes of variation in animals,* and when 
an improvement is thus begun by judicious feeding it may 
be perpetuated by breeding ; but feeding leads the improve- 
ment. This position does not undervalue pedigree, for it 
takes a long effort of both breeding and feeding to establish 
the fixed characteristics of the Short-horns, or other pure 
breeds ; but it is folly to magnify the pedigree extrava- 
gantly, and forget the essential agency that established the 
improvement and made the pedigree valuable. But all 
this is gradually changing, and farmers are beginning to 
see the importance of closely studying the effect of food 
upon the animals they rear and feed. 

The Germans have felt the want of knowledge uj)on this 
subject, and have been diligently experimenting upon it, 
especially for the last fifteen years. They are assisting in 
laying a foundation for the science of feeding, and the 
experiment stations of this country, we trust, will soon 
be working in, the same direction. 

The author, from extensive observation among stock 
raisers and feeders, believes that a practical Avork upon 
feeding animals, which shall use only so much of scientific 
formula as is necessary to a proper understanding of the 
subject, is nov/ more needed than upon any other branch 
of a'griculture. And it has been his primary object, in tlie 
preparation of this book, to discuss every topic from a 
practical standpoint, adding to the personal experience 
of the author all well-established data and experiments 
of the most intelligent investigators. Science and practice 
must go hand-in-hand. Happily, the prejudice of the 
farmer against science in his calling is fast dying out ; and 
the scientific investigator cordially welcomes the practical 

♦Animals a»d Plants, vol. 2, p. 309, 



INTRODtrCTION-. 17 

information of the most accurate farmers, and bases his de- 
ductions largely upon the facts which they have established. 

Our farm animals are kept with a view to use or profit. 
It is, therefore, of the highest importance that the food 
consumed should produce the best result in growth or 
product. 

To aid the reader in understanding the value of the 
diiferent foods, the chemical constituents of each is given 
from analyses by the best chemists of this country and 
Europe ; and added to this, all the most reliable experiments 
in feeding, both in this country and England, together 
with the German experiments to determine the digestibility 
and nutritive value of the ingredients in each food com- 
monly employed in growing and fattening animals, are 
given and explained. These German experiments are the 
most important contribution to the science of feeding 
during the last quarter of a century. And these German 
tables, in connection with the numerous feeding trials given 
for each class of stock, it is hoped will enable the practical 
feeder to fully comprehend the comparative and economical 
value of each class of foods he desires to employ. 

Animal physiology is so far treated and illustrated as to 
give a general insight into the process of digestion in the 
diflfereut classes of farm stock ; and the principles of 
animal hygiene so far considered as to suggest the general 
mode of preventive treatment to maintain the health of 
animals. 

As shelter is an important item in the economical man- 
agement of stock in many of our states, the subject of the 
construction of barns and basement stables, for all purposes 
of stock-keeping, is discussed and illustrated. 

The new system of ensilage appears to have so many 
important advantages in preserving all the succulent quali- 
ties and digestibility of the grasses and leguminous plants, 
and to render practical the application of the soiling system 



18 INTRODUCTION'. 

to all parts of the country — placing the cold and the mild 
climates upon nearly equal advantage — that it is thought 
worthy of a full statement of all its good points, illustrated 
with plans of silos, and with practical directions for build- 
ing the same in the most economical manner, from the 
various materials found in different localities. 



FEEDING ANIMALS. 



CHAPTER I. 

COMPOSITION OF ANIMAL BODIES. 

That the reader may have a clear understanding of the 
philosophy of growing animals, and of the office to be 
performed by the food, we deem it necessary to give a short 
preliminary explanation of vegetable and animal bodies. 

The true relation of animal to vegetable life is not so 
well comprehended by the mass of farmers as it should be, 
and a concise statement of these principles will assist them 
in understanding their application to the various subjects 
discussed in this book. 

The natural function of plants or vegetables is to absorb 
the inorganic matter of soil and air, and convert it into 
organized structures of a complex character. Plants use 
only mineral food, and advance this by organizing it into 
a higher form. Their food consists mostly of water, car- 
bonic acid and ammonia. Water is composed of oxygen 
and hydrogen ; carbonic acid is made up of carbon and 
oxygen ; and ammonia of hydrogen and nitrogen. These 
four elements are called the organic elements, because they 
compose the bulk of all plants. The combustible portion 
of all plants and animals is made up of these organic 
elements ; the incombustible part is formed of sulphur, 
phosphorus, chlorine, potassium, sodium, calcium, magne- 



20 PEEDIITG ANIMALS. 

slum, silicon, and iron. These are the principal elements. 
Sometimes iodine, bromine, and a few other simple element- 
ary bodies are found in plants and animals. Vegetable and 
animal substances are often looked upon as very different 
in their composition, but the most important of these 
elements are quite identical in vegetables and animals. 
Vegetable albumen, which is often found coagulated in 
boiling vegetable juices, is identical with the albumen of 
the white of eggs. The fibrin of blood is in no wise difler- 
ent from the fibrin of wheat and many other cereal grains; 
and the curd or casein of milk is the same as the legumen 
of peas and beans. And these substances are all converti- 
ble into each other within the animal organism. We shall 
consider the senarate elements of vegetable foods in the 
next chapter. 

It was formerly supposed that animals had the power of 
changing and combining the elements of their food into 
such form as their necessities required ; but it is now 
believed that they do not possess the power of even com- 
pounding the substance of the muscles from its elements, 
and can only appropriate from vegetables what they find 
ready formed for their use — that the vegetable must elabo- 
rate, and the animal can merely appropriate. Food, then, 
must contain all the elements of animal bodies. It will 
therefore be profitable to consider the composition of animal 
bodies — the blood, the flesh, or muscles, the fat, the bones, 
the skin, hair or wool, horn, etc. 

1st. The blood,-- on an average, contains water, 79 per 
cent., and 20 per cent, of organic matters, consisting prin- 
cipally of a nitrogenous substance analagous to fibrin, 
which separates in long strings when blood is beaten with 
a stick immediately after being drawn, and some albumen, 
which remains dissolved in the liquid part of tlie blood or 
s&rum. On heating, the albumen coagulates and separates 
into whitish flakes, like the white of eggs, with which it is 



COJIPOSITION" OF ANIMAL BODIES. 21 

identical in composition, also some fatty matter and a trace 
of sugar. The asli of blood is almost one per cent., and is 
ricli in chloride of sodium, or common salt, and contains 
a large proportion of the phosphates of soda, lime and 
magnesia. 

To the eye the blood appears to be a homogeneous red 
liquid, but on microscopic examination is found to consist 
of a colorless fluid — called liquor sanguinis, or plasma of 
the blood — holding in suspension very great numbers of 
globular bodies — the colored and colorless corpuscles of the 
blood. The colored greatly outnumber the colorless cor- 
puscles ; and the former consist largely of coloring matter 
— haemoglobin — which gives blood its red color. The 
shade of color depends upon the amount of oxygen. Ar- 
terial blood contains oxyhgemoglobin, which is a bright red, 
crystaline body, having a similar composition to albumin- 
oids, but with the addition of about 0.45 per cent, of iron, 
from. which the color is supjjosed to be derived. We here 
give a tabular view, exhibiting the relative composition of 
the blood corpuscles and the liquor sanguinis, as deter- 
mined by Schmidt and Lehman : 

1,000 Parts of Blood Corpuscles 1,000 Parts of Liquor Sanguinis 
Contain : Contain : 

"Water , . .688.00 Water 902.90 

Solid constituents 313.00 Solid constituents 97. 10 



Specific gravity 1088.5 Specific gravity 1028 



Fibrin 4.05 

Haemoglobin and proteids of Proteids, chiefly serum-albu- 

the stroma 298.97 min 78.84 

Fat 2.31 Fat 1.72 

Extractive matters 2 . 60 Extractive matters 3 . 94 

Mineral substances 8. 12 Mineral substances 8.55 



Chlorine 1.686 Chlorine 3.644 

Sulphur trioxide 0.066 Sulphur trioxide 0. 155 

Phosphorus pentoxide 1 . 134 Phosphorus pentoxide . 191 

Potassium 3.328 Potassium 0.323 

Sodium 1.053 Sodium 3.341 

Oxygen 0.667 Oxj-gen ..0.403 

Calcium phosphate . 114 Calcium phosphate 311 

Magnesium phosphate . 073 Magnesium phosphate . 232 



22 FEEDING AKIMALS. 

The blood contains all the elements of every part of the 
body. Yet it bears but a small proportion to the whole 
body, averaging only from 6 to 8 per cent. Althongh the 
blood is constantly furnishing material to build up the 
tissues of the body in every part, yet its quantity remains 
practically the same, and its chemical constituents may be 
considered unvarying — the blood is constantly forming 
from the food and as constantly being absorbed by the 
secretory vessels. 

3d. The fleshy parts, or muscles, of animals consist, 
principally, of muscular fibre, or fibrin; and contain, 
besides cellular tissue, nervous substance, blood, and lym- 
phatic vessels and an acid juice. This juice contains lactic 
acid, a little albumen, some salts of potash, phosphate of 
lime, and magnesia, and gives the taste to flesh. This 
muscular fibre has a close analogy to the fibrin oi blood, to 
albumen, white of eggs, casein, gluten, legumen, and albu- 
men of vegetables. All these substances contain about 16 
per cent, of nitrogen, and a small quantity of phosphorus 
and sulphur. 

These albuminoids contained in the muscles, cellular 
tissue, blood and lymphatic vessels have a general compo- 
sition, according to J. F. W. Johnston, of: 

Water 77.00 

Albuminoids, with a little fat 22.00 

Phosphate of lime 66 

Other saline matter (sulphm-, etc.) 34 

100.00 

The ultimate composition of albuminoids has about the 
following average : 

Carbon 53.00 

Hydrogen 7.00 

Nitrogen 16.00 

Oxygen 22.50 

Sulphm- 1 50 

100.00 



COMPOSITION" OF ANIMAL BODIES. 23 

It will be important when considering the effect of 
albuminoids in the fattening ration of animals to refer to 
this analysis. 

3d. The skin, hair, horn, hoof and wool possess a simi- 
lar composition to the muscular parts of the animal body, 
the principal difference consisting in a larger proportion 
of sulphur (three to five per cent.) which they contain, and 
varying proiDortions of nitrogen. They consist of a sub- 
stance resembling gluten and gelatine in composition, and, 
containing less water than muscular fibre, they leave from 
one to two per cent, of ash. According to Johnston they 
contain of organic matter : 

Horse^sHoof. Skin. Wool. Hair. Horn. 
(Mulder.) 

Carbon 51.41 50.99 50.65 51.53 51.99 

Hydrogen...... 6.96 7.07 7.03 6.69 6.72 

Nitrogen 17.46 18.73 17.71 17.94 17.28 

Oxygen and Stdphur. 24.72 23.22 24.61 23.84 24.01 

100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 

4th. The fat of animals is a mixture of several organic 
compounds, which are all distinguished by containing a 
large proportion of carbon, united with oxygen and hydro- 
gen, but has no nitrogen, or inorganic matter. The same 
constituents which are found in animal exist in the vege- 
table oils and fatty matters of vegetables. 

In order that the reader may have a mode of comparison 
of the relative value of fat and starch in foods, we give the 
following average analyses of fats : 

Carhon. Hydrogen. Oxygen. 

Beef fat 76.50 11.91 11.59 

Mutton fat 76.61 12.03 11.36 

Pork fat 76.54 11.94 11.53 

5 th. . The bones consist of about one-third organic 
matter, made up mostly of gelatine, containing about 18 
per cent, of nitrogen ; and the other two-thirds, or 66 per 
cent., of phosphate of lime, carbonate of lime, phosphate 
of magnesia, potash and common salt. 



24 FEEDING ANIMALS. 

The formula given by Johnston is as follows : 

COMPOSITION OF BONES. 

Gelatine 35 

Phosphate of lime 55 

(Containing phosphoric acid, 23.38) 

Carbonate of lime 4 

Phosphate of magnesia 3 

Soda, potash and common salt 3 

100 

This is from the mature animal. The bones of an 
animal at birth do not contain more than 50 per cent, of 
ash. 

Chemically considered, then, animal bodies consist of : 
1st. Organic matters free from nitrogen. 2d. Organic mat- 
ters rich in nitrogen — fibrin and albumin. 3d. Inorganic 
salts — chloride of sodium, phosphate of lime, potash, etc. 
4th. Water. These constituents of the animal body must 
all be derived from the food. 

That most painstaking and accurate experimenter, to 
whom all agriculturists are deeply indebted. Sir J. B. 
Lawes, of Eothamsted, England, with his assistant, Dr. 
Gilbert, undei-took an experiment, a few years ago, to 
determine the proportion of the different parts of the 
animal, and the composition of each part. The fat and 
the nitrogenous or lean was carefully determined by analy- 
sis in the dressed carcass, in the offal, and in the entire 
animal. There were a large number of oxen, sheep and 
pigs in these feeding experiments, and from these ten were 
selected. These consisted of a fat calf, a half-fat ox, a fat 
ox, a fat lamb, a store sheep, a half-fat old sheep, a fat 
sheep, a very fat sheep, a store pig and a fat pig. 

The popular idea had been that all aninmls, except the 
fattest, contained more lean flesh than fat. But this table 
refutes tliis idea most conclusively. The fat ox and fat 
lamb contained about three times as much fat as lean flesh. 
This table, which we give, contains very precise evidence 



COMPOSITION OF ANIMAL BODIES. 26 

of the useful and the waste parts of the animal, and can 
be studied with profit, as showing how the parts of the 
animal change as the process of fattening goes on.* 

In explanation of this table : The carcass is that part of 
the animal consumed as food. The offal is made up of 
those parts not consumed as human food, and embraces 
skin, feet, head and all the internal organs, excej)t the kid- 
ney and kidney fat. The relative proportion of fat in the 
carcasses analyzed is given ; but the nitrogenous matters 
are found in large proportion in the offal, so that the rela- 
tive proportions of the constituents of the whole body are 
considered. In a fat and fully-grown animal, there is 49 
per cent, of water, 33 per cent, of dry fat, 13 per cent, of 
dry nitrogenous matter — muscles separated from fat, hide, 
etc., and 3 per cent, of mineral matter. In the lean animal 
the average proportion is 54 per cent, of water, 25^ per 
cent, of dry fat, 17 per cent, of dry nitrogenous matter, 
and 3i per cent, of mineral substances. 

This table contains a summary of the most important 
experiments ever carried out to ascertain the facts here 
stated. This clearly shows how a lean animal exchanges 
water for fat, and how the animal may be improving most 
profitably without gaining much in weight by a substitu- 
tion of fat for water. He shows that during the last stages. 
of fattening the gain may consist of 75 or more per cent, 
of dry substance. 

We place this table in the first chapter that it may be 
easy of reference in illustration of the feeding experi- 
ments given in the progress of the work. 

We also print here an extensive table of proportions of 
the various parts of cattle, sheep, and swine, from the Ger- 
man of Wolff, for a translation of which we are indebted 

* " Experimental Inquiry into the Composition of some of the Animals 
Slaughtered as Human Food." By John Bennet Lawes, F. R. S., F. C. S., 
and Joseph Henry Gilbert, Ph. D., F. C. S. Philosophical Transactions 
of the Royal Society, Part II., 1860. 
3 



36 



FEEDING ANIMALS. 



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COMPOSITION OF ANIMAL BODIES. 



27 



to Dr. Armsby's Manual of Cattle Feeding. A study of 
this table will give the reader accurate information of the 
percentage proportion of all the various parts of the 
animal, and he will see the proportion of valuable parts, 
and the true basis of judging of the value of an animal to 
the butcher, etc. This table will be needed for frequent 
reference. It shows in an admirable way the changes from 
the lean to the fat animal, from the young to the mature. 
We trust that in this chapter tlie reader will find a full 
explanation of all questions that may arise in relation to 
the composition of animal bodies. 

Proportions of the Various Parts of Cattle, Sheep 
AND Swine. 



Contents of stom- 1 

ach and intes- >- 

tines ) 

Blood 

Skin and horns 

Legs to gambrel ) 

joints 5 

Washed wool 

Wool-dirt 

Head 

Tongue and gullet. . 

Heart 

Lungs and windpipe 
Liver and gall ? 

bladder, 5 ' • • • 

Diaphragm 

Spleen 

Stomach, without ) 

contents 3 

Intestines, with- ) 

out contents ... 5 
Fat of omentum ^ 

and intestines. 
Four quarters, in 

clud" 

and 
Loss 



perct. perct. 
18.0 15.0 



I iniesiuies.. ) 
quarters, in- 1 
ling kidneys >- 
. kidney fat, ) 



Total. 



Ox. 



4.7. 
8.4 

1.9 



2.8 
0.6 
0.4 
0.7 

1.5 

0.5 
0.2 

4.5 
2.0 
2.3 

47.4 

4.1 

100.0 



4.2 

7.4 

1.7 



2.7 
0.6 
0.5 
0.7 

1.3 

0.5 
0.2 

3.0 



per ct. 
12.0 

8.9 

6.0 

1.6 



2.6 
0.5 
0.5 
0.6 

1.3 

0.5 
0.2 

2.7 



1.5 1.4 
2.9 4.5 

55.7 60.3 

2.ll 1.4 

100.0 100.0 



per ct. 

7.0 

4.8 
6.8 

1.9 



;4.8 

'0.6 
1.2 

1.6 

0.4 
0.3 

1.2 
2.4 
2.4 



60.0 
4.6 



100.0 



Sheep. 



per ct. 
16.0 
3.9 
9.6 

5.0 

4.8 

4.6 

0.4 
1.5 

1.4 

0.3 
0.3 

2.4 
2.3 
3.0 

43.3 

1.3 

100.0 



per ct. 
15.0 
3.9 



W 



per ct. 
14.0 
3.6 



3.3 8.0 



4.7 
4.5 



0.3 
1.5 

1.3 

0.3 
0.2 

2.3 

2.2 
4.1 



45.3 
0.8 



100.0 



4.3 

4.0 



0.4 
1.2 

1.3 

0.3 
0.2 

2.3 



4.9 

49.4 
0.5 



100.0 



per ct. 

12.0 

3.2 

7.2 

4.0 
3.6 



0.3 
1.0 

1.3 

0.2 

0.1 

2.0 



6.8 

52.8 
0.6 



100.0 



per ct. 

10.0 

3.2 

6.5 

3.6 
3.2 

2.8 

0.2 
1.0 

1.0 

0.2 
0.1 

1.5 
1.3 
8.0 

57.1 
0.3 



Swine. 



100.0 



per ct. 
7.0 
7.3 



[0.5 
0.5 
1.4 

2.6 



0.2 
1.2 

3.9 

1.7 

72.8 

0.9 

100.0 



per ct. 
5.0 
3.6 



0.4 
0.3 
0.9 



0.2 
0.7 

2.2 

2.5 

82.1 

0.4 

100.0 



28 



FEEDING AliTIMALS. 





Ox. 


1 
1 


Sheep. 


Swine. 








1 


1-^ 


•6 

■a 

per ct. 

3.9 

22.8 

8.1 
49.4 

15.0 


"a 

a 


i 


is 

per ct. 

3.2 

16.1 

5.3 
65.1 

10.0 


■a 
"S 


^ 
f^ 


Blood 


per ot. 

4.r 

13.7 

9.8 
49.7 

18.0 


per ct. 

4.2 

12.4 

7.7 
58.6 

15.0 


per ct. 

3.9 

10.9 

7.2 
64.8 

13.0 


per ct. 

4.8 

13.5 

7.7 
62.4 

7.0 


per ot. 

3.9 

24.0 

8.5 
46.3 

16.0 


per ct. 

3.6 

20.0 

7.7 
54.3 

14.0 


per ct. 

3.2 

18.0 

6.6 
59.6 

12.0 


per ct, 
7.3 

9.8 
74.5 

7.0 


per ct. 
3.0 


Skin, head, legs ) 
and tongue 5 


6.0 


Flesh and fat 

Contents of stom- 1 
ach and intes- > 
tines j 


84.6 
5.0 







CONSTITUENTS OF CARCASS (DRESSED WEIGHT, INCLUDING FAT OF 
OMENTUM, ETC.). 



Flesh, without fat ? 

and bones 5 

Bones 

Fat ill flesh 

Fat on kidneys 

Fat on omentum ) 
and intestines., i 

Total 



36.0 


38.0 


35.0 


43.0 


33.2 


33.5 


33.1 


29.0 


27.0 


46.4 


7.4 
2.0 
2.0 


7.3 
7.9 
2.5 


7.1 
14.7 
3.5 


9.3 
5.5 
2.2 


7.1 
2.0 
1.0 


6.6 
3.3 
1.9 


5.9 
8.0 
2.4 


5.5 
14.7 
3.6 


5.2 
20.5 
4.4 


8.0 
16.5 
1.9 


2.3 


2.9 


4.5 


2 4 


3.0 


4.1 


4.9 


6.8 


8.0 


1.7 


49.7 


58.6 


64.8 


62.4 


46.3 


49.4 


54.3 


59.6 


65.1 


74.5 



40.0 

5.8 

32.4 

3.9 

2.5 
84.6 



FLESH OF CARCASS, WITHOUT FAT OR BONES. 



Dry matter 

Water 


8.0 
28.0 


8.4 
29.6 


7.5 
27.5 

'35.0 


8.S 
34.2 

43.0 


6.8 
26.4 


6.7 
26.8 

33.5 


6.3 

26.8 

33.1 


5.4 
23.6 


5.1 
21.9 

27.0 


8.1 7.3 
38.3 32.7 


Total 


36.0 


38.0 


33.2 


29.0 


46.4 40.0 



IN 100 PARTS OF FLESH, WITHOUT BONES (BUTCHERS' MEAT). 



Fat 

Muscle substance .. 

Ash 

Water 


5.3 
19.8 

1.2 
73.7 

100.0 


17.2 
17.5 
0.9 
64.4 

100.0 


29.4 

14.5 

0.8 

55.3 

100.0 


11.8 

17.0 

1.1 

70.6: 

100.0 


5.7 
18.0 

1.3 
75.0 

100.0 


9.0 

17.1 

1.1 

72.8 

100.0 


19.5 
14.5 
0.8 
65.2 

100.0 


33.6 
11.7 
0.7 
54.0 

100.0 


43.2' 
10.2 
0.6 
46.0 

100.0 


26.2 

12.3 

0.6 

60.9 

100.0 


45.5 
9.7 
0.4 

44.4 


Total 


100.0 



COMPOSITION" OF ANIMAL BODIES. 29 

PKRCENTAGE COMPOSITION OF LIVE ANIMALS. 





Ox. 




Sheep. 


Swine. 




•c 








-d 


.jj 






TS 








t2 




n 




<2 


g 




i^ 








^ 


ii 






a 


j-j 


«fcH 




b 


^ 






























^ 


W 


g 


pq 




^ 


a 


C3 


?► 


^ 


Pn 




per ct. 


per ct. 


per ct. 


per ct. 


per ct. 


per ct. 


parct 


per ct. 


per ct. 


per ct. 


per ct. 


Pat 


7.1 


14,9 


26.8 


13,1 


8.6 


13.2 


18.3 


28.1 


37.2 


22.5 


40,2 


Protein 


15.8 


15.5 


13.7 


15.3 


15.4 


14.8 


13.8 


12.2 


11.0 


13.9 


no 


Ash 


4.8 


4.4 


3.9 


4.5 


3.4 


3.3 


3.2 


2.9 


a.H 


2.7 


1,8 


Water 


54.3 


50.3 


43.6 


60.1 


56.6 


53.7 


50.7 


44.8 


39.0 


53.9 


42 


Contents of stom- J 




ach and intes- V 


18.0 


15.0 


12.0 


7.0 


16.0 


15.0 


14.0 


12.0 


10.0 


7.0 


5.0 


tines ) 
























Total 


100.0 


100.0 


100.0 


100.0 


100.0 


100.0 


100.0 


100.0 


100.0 


100.0 


100.0 







THE SAME, LESS CONTENTS OP STOMACH AND INTESTINES. 



Fat 

Protein . . 

Ash 

Water . . . 

Total 



8.7 
19 2 

5.9 
66 2 

100.0 


17.5 
18.3 
5.2 
59.0 

100.0 


30.5 

15.6 

4.4 

49.5 

100.0 


14.1 
10.5 
4.8 
64.6 

100.0 


10.2 
18.3 
4.0 
67.5 


100.0 



15.5 21.3 


31.9 


41,4 


24.2 


17.4 16.0 


13.9 


12.2 


15.0 


3.9 3.8 


3.3 


3.1 


2.9 


63.2 58.9 


50.9 


43.3 


57.9 


100.0 100.0 


100.0 


100.0 


100.0 



42.3 

11.9 

1.9 

43. 9 

100.0 



MINERAL MATTER IN 100 PARTS OF LIVE ANIMALS. 



Phosphoric acid 

Lime 


1.92 
2.14 
0.06 
0.18 
0.14 
0.02 

0.34 


1.76 
1 96 
06 
0.16 
0.13 
0.01 

0.32 


1.56 
1.74 
0.05 
0.14 
0.12 
0.01 

0.28 


1.64 
1.93 
0.00 
0.29 
0.07 
0.01 

0.50 


1.33 
1.40 
0.05 
0.16 
0.15 
0.02 

0.29 


1.29 
1.35 
0.04 
0.16 
0.15 
0.02 

0.29 


1.25 
1.31 
0.04 
0.15 
0.14 
0.02 

0.29 


1.13 
1.19 
0.04 
0.14 
0.13 
0.02 

0.25 


1.09 
1.15 
0.04 
0.13' 
0.12: 
0.02 

0.25 


1.10 
1.15 


0.73 
77 




0.05 ()3 


Potash 

Soda 

Silica 


0.15 
0.19 

0.15 


0.10 
0.07 


Sulphuric acid, ) 
chlorine and car- V 
bonic acid ) 


0.10 


Total 


4.80 


4.40 


3.90 


4.50 


3.40 


3.30 


3.20 


2.90 


2.80 


2.70 


1.80 



30 FEEDING ANIMALS. 



CHAPTEK II. 

ELEMENTS OF FODDER VEGETABLES. 

Having considered iu the last chapter the complicated 
structure of the animal body, we now proceed to show the 
feeder how these complex bodies of animals are nourished 
and renewed by the assimilation and substitution of the 
same elements contained in vegetables. These animal 
bodies are constantly undergoing changes, the substances 
of which they are composed are broken down or de- 
stroyed, and substances identical in composition in vege- 
table foods are replacing them in the animal economy. 

A Nutrient. — The term nutrient, which will frequently 
be used, means any single chemical compound, such as 
starch, sugar, fat, gluten, casein, albumen, etc., which is 
capable of nourishing the body or repairing its waste. 

Every fodder used in feeding animals is composed of 
more than one nutrient ; and these nutrients are contained 
in very unlike proportions in different feeding stuffs. 

Eation. — The animal body is made up of these various 
compounds, but the proportions of the various constitu- 
ents are nearly the same at all times, so that the food on 
Avhich it is sustained should have about the same propor- 
tion of these different nutrients as are the proportions of 
these elements in the animal body. The skill of the feeder 
is shown in combining these different foods so as to make 
uf a mixture meeting all the wants of the animal. This 
combination is properly called a ration. 



NITROGENOUS NUTRIENTS. 31 

To explain : The animal body is made up of nitrogenous, 
and non-nitrogenous elements, with some mineral sub- 
stances. Some fodders possess all these elements in 
proper combination, such as a mixture of grasses or meadow- 
hay. Some have one and some the other group of nutri- 
ents in excess; such as straw, turnips and Indian corn, 
have the carbonacious elements in excess, whilst oil-cake, 
malt-sprouts, etc., contain an excess of the nitrogenous or 
albuminoid nutrients — but when properly mixed these will 
constitute a complete food or ration. 

Let us now explain the three groups of nutrients con- 
tained in vegetables. 

Nitrogenous Nutrients. 

We shall not attempt to go into a detailed explanation of 
all the names of nitrogenous substances which modern 
chemists have found to exist in vegetables used as food for 
animals. So far as any practical advantage to the feeder, 
these nitrogenous substances may all be considered to have 
the same general composition as the albuminoids of the 
animal body, and are generally called albuminoids. Three 
of these vegetable albuminoids, best understood, albumen, 
casein, and fibrin, we shall proceed to explain and comjiare 
them with animal albuminoids — giving a table containing 
these with several other subdivisions recently made by 
chemists. 

If we examine wheat flour, making it into a dough, then 
Avashing it several times on a piece of mnslin, tied over the 
mouth of a tumbler, until the water passes through clear, 
the flour is separated into its two chief constituent parts — 
the starch, which forms the chief portion of the wheat, is 
wasiied through the muslin ; the gluten, mixed with the 
bran of the grain, remains on the muslin, in the form of a 
whitish-gray, sticky substance. The gluten thus obtained 
is not simple, but a mixture of several similar substances 



32 • FEEDING ANIMALS. 

and some fatty matters. If the milky liquid which passes 
through the muslin is allowed to stand undisturbed for a 
little time, all the starch will settle to the bottom of the 
tumbler, and the liquid above will be quite clear, and may 
be drawn off. On boiling this clear liquid, white, volum- 
inous flakes of vegetable albumen (a substance similar to 
the white of eggs) will separate. After removing tbe al- 
bumen and evaporating the liquid, a little sugar and gum 
will be found. Thus starch, sugar, gum, fat, gluten, albu- 
men, and salts are found in wheat. In Indian corn, rye, 
and barley these constituents will be found nearly the 
same ; but in oats, peas, beans, etc., instead of gluten and 
albumen, will be found a substance which resembles, in 
nearly all chemical characteristics, casein of the curd of 
milk. This substance, having first been found in legumi- 
nous plants, is called legumen, and is so near like casein as 
to be called vegetable casein. 

The most of the table on opposite page is taken from 
analyses by Kitthausen. 

Chemists have also found certain nitrogenous organic 
substances in the grasses and other vegetables, having some 
chemical resemblance to ammonia — called amides. But a 
separate discussion of these is not important, since in 
analyses these are included in the total amount of nitrogen 
in the plant. 

The term j)rotein is now largely used by chemists to 
mean all the albuminoids collectively. As will be seen by 
the above table, all these substances contain about 16 per 
cent, of nitrogen, and small quantities of sulphur or phos- 
phorus, or both. It will be noted that the percentage of 
nitrogen is substantially the same in these vegetable sub- 
stances as in animal albumen, casein, and fibrin, and they 
can hardly be distinguished from each other. Therefore 
we see that the material of which the flesh and blood of 
animals principally consist, exist ready-formed in the 



IS'ITROGENOUS NUTRIENTS. 



3:3 



P CD . 



'o3 if^ CT O UT 



io b: cjT io oi 



1-1 *s oi -1 ^^ 



Animal Albumen. 



Vegetable Albumen. 



Gluten of Wheat. 



fo p -5 CO Casein of Milk. 

or oi o o o 



o ^s -J -Q ■-' 

— 3 Ol 4^ rf^ 05 



Oats. 



: '*HD i-i O J^ 
O -i M li< 00 



00*..05i-i 
'*■ CO -5 O *.. 



Peas. 



Beans. 



»-iO C5»J »4^ 
O C: 00 -^ CO 



O O (35 -5 *». 

35 --7 CO c;» O 

-X> GO CO ►- U5 



Wheat. 



Barley. 



Maize. 



OH-imas*.. 



Mucediu from Wheat. 



opco-ifo Gliadiu from Wheat. 

00 CO o i-i 35 



34 FEEDING ANIMALS. 

cereals and leguminous seeds which animals eat. They are 
also found in smaller quantities in grass, clover, hay, and 
other foods. Without undergoing much change in the 
animal stomach, they are assimilated and readily converted 
into blood and thence into muscular fibre. But all these 
plants which serve as food for animals, contain only a small 
proportion of albumen, casein, and gluten, and other albu- 
minoids ; their great bulk is made up of starch, gum, sugar, 
cellular fibre, and some other carbo-hydrates. They present 
the animal with a mixture in which the substance of the 
muscles exists ready-formed ; and for this reason the albu- 
men, casein, legumen, gluten, and other nitrogenous com- 
pounds of vegetables were first called flesh-forming 2^7' inoi- 
ples, or flesh formers. They are now more commonly called 
albuminoids, or proteids. Careful experiments have shown 
that no foods which do not contain albuminous compounds 
can sustain animal life for more than a few days. A sheep, 
weighing 52 lbs., being fed on sugar dissolved in water, 
died in 20 days, and lost 21 lbs. A goose, weighing 6 lbs. 
1 oz., fed on sugar, died in 22 days ; another, fed on starch, 
lived 27 days. Dogs fed on starch, sugar, gum, butter, and 
other food perfectly free from albuminoids, apparently keep 
their condition the first week, then rapidly become emaci- 
ated, and die at about the end of the fifth week, only a 
little later than if no food had been given them. It has 
also been found that animals cannot live upon albuminoids 
alone. But foods rich in albuminoids have a great superi- 
ority in feeding value. 

NON-NITKOGENOUS NUTKIENTS. 

Carbo-hydrates.— As we have seen, the great bulk of 
vegetables is made up of non-nitrogenous compounds — 
called carbo-hydrates. The principal of these are cellulose, 
a iDoody fibre, starch, dextrine, cane, grape and fruit sugar, 
and the gi(,ms. They are called carbo-hydrates because 



N"ON"-N"ITEOGENOUS NUTRIEi^TS. 35 

tliey are composed simply of carbon, and the elements of 
water — hydrogen and oxygen. 

Cellulose. — The cellular structure of all plants, and of 
the trunks of trees, consist of this substance. It consti- 
tutes the frame-work of plants; and the cells of this 
frame-work are internally coated, or incrusted with a harder 
and tougher substance, called lignin. These two substan- 
ces are so much found together, and their chemical com- 
position is so nearly alike, that they may properly be 
considered together. 

Pure cellulose has the same chemical composition as 
starch, and' all woody fibres can be changed into starch by 
heat and by acids. 

The dried stalks of all grass and fodder plants are com- 
posed largely of cellulose. 

Effect of Heat upon Woody Fibre. — ,J. F. W. John- 
ston quotes from Schiibler the following : '' If wood be 
reduced to the state of fine sawdust, and be then boiled in 
water to sejDarate everything soluble, afterwards dried by a 
gentle heat, then heated several times in a baker's oven, it 
will become hard and crisp, and may be ground in the mill 
into fine meal. The powder thus obtained is slightly yel- 
low in color, but has a taste and smell similar to the flour 
of wheat ; it ferments when made into paste with yeast or 
leaven, and when baked gives a light, homogeneous bread. 
Boiled with water, it yields a stiff, tremulous Jelly like that 
from starch." 

It thus appears, that by the agency of heat, woody fibre 
may be changed into starch. 

Effect of Acid upon it. — If these parts of fine saw- 
dust, or fragments of old linen be rubbed in a mortar with 
four parts of sulphuric acid, added by degrees, it will, in 
15 minutes, be rendered completely soluble in water. If 
the solution in water be freed from acid with chalk, and 



36 FEEDING ANIMALS. 

then evaporated, a substance resembling gum arable is 
obtained. And, according to Schleiden, the fibre may be 
seen, under the microscope, gradually to change from with- 
out inwards, first into starch, then into gum. The fibre of 
wood or linen may be changed directly into sugar by the 
prolonged action of dilute sulphuric acid. 

Digestibility of Cellulose. — Woody fibre was form- 
erly thought to be quite indigestible. Haubner, about 
1850, showed that ruminants digested a large proportion 
of cellulose. And hundreds of digestion experiments have 
shown that this substance is an important part of fodder 
for herbivorous domestic animals. The German experi- 
ments have undertaken to fix the percentage of cellulose 
digested in a large number of our coarse fodders, and also 
of cereal grains. Of the former, ruminants were found to 
digest from 30 to 70 per cent., whilst the cellulose of grains 
was found less digestible. The woody fibre of young and 
tender plants was found much more digestible than when 
nearer maturity, and more lignin had formed. It is 
doubted even now if lignin is digestible, especially in its 
crude state. 

Starch. — This is one of the most abundant substances in 
the vegetable kingdom, being found in all plants. It is 
exceeded in quantity only by cellulose. It is supposed to 
be formed in the green leaves of plants and trees from the 
carbonic acid of the air, aided by sunlight. It seems to be 
deposited most rapidly in plants near the time of ripening. 
It is found largely in the cereal grains. Indian corn con- 
tains 60 to 68 per cent., and wheat from 62 to 72 per cent. 

Starch appears to the eye like particles of meal, yet 
under a strong microscope it is found to consist of small 
and regular grains or globules. 

We have seen how starch may be separated from wheat 
or other grain. If fresh plants, such as grass before bios- 



NOTSr-NITEOGENOUS NUTRIENTS. 37 

som, are bruised and mascerated, and the liquid then 
pressed out, a large portion of the starch will pass with the 
juice from the vegetable tissue, and after standing for a 
short time, will settle as a mealy mass. Almost every 
housewife knows how to separate starch from potatoes. 

It cannot be dissolved in cold water without the grains 
are mashed very fine, and then only a small proportion is 
dissolved. But when mixed with water at the boiling 
jDoint, the grains absorb water and burst. It is from this 
fact that cooking starchy food is supposed to render it 
much more digestible. When boiled with weak acids or 
alkalies it is converted into grape sugar, even the action of 
saliva is supposed to change starch into sugar. Liebig 
supposed it turned into sugar in the process of digestion. 
We shall give its composition with other carbo-hydrates. 

Dextrine. — This may be considered as an artificial pro- 
duct of starch, produced by dry heat upon it. It is a com- 
mercial article under the name of British gum. 

Sugars. — There are cane, grape and fruit sugars. The 
first is produced from the juice of the sugar cane plant, 
from beet root, sugar-maple and other plants — this is the 
principal sugar of commerce. Grape sugar and fruit sugar 
occur in the juices of many plants, and are often found 
together and in the fruits and honey. They are all soluble 
in water, and easily digested. In the process of digestion, 
cellulose and starch are supposed to be turned into sugar. 

The Pectin Substances. — These are found in fruits and 
roots. In fruits these substances form jellies, but their ex- 
act chemical composition has not been much investigated. 
It has been supposed by some careful observers that the 
pectin of fruits and of turnips, beets, carrots and other 
roots, has an important effect in assisting in the digestion 
of other food, that this substance assists in rendering other 



38 FEEDING ANIMALS. 

carbo-hydrates soluble, or by gelatinizing the contents of 
the stomach. But these points have not been very much 
investigated. 

It is found that pectin is increased in roots and fruits by 
cooking. The process of digestion may perhaps have the 
same effect. 

Fats. — All our fodders and roots contain a small propor- 
tion of fat, and this is one of the most important of the 
carbo-hydrates. The fats in plants have, substantially, the 
same composition as the fats of the animal body. In the 
analyses which will be given of all these bodies, it will be 
seen that the fats contain a much larger proportion of 
carbon and correspondingly less oxygen ; and in burning 
gives out about 2% times as much heat as starch, sugar, 
etc., and are estimated to have 2H times the nutritive value 
of such carbohydrates. 

Fat is found in different fodders about in the following 
proportions: Average meadow hay 3.5 per cent., best 3; 
clover, very good, 3.2; timothy 3 percent.; turnips and 
other roots 0.1 to 0.2 ; Indian corn 4 to 7 per cent. ; oats 6.0; 
rye 2.0 ; barley 2.5, etc. ; straw from 1 to 2 per cent. But 
the seeds, of cotton, flax, hemp, and some other plants, 
contain from 10 to 38 per cent, of oil. These oil-bearing 
seeds are put under pressure to extract the oil as an article 
of commerce, but the residue (oil cake) retains a consid- 
erable proportion of oil. 

Oil has a great effect in rapid fattening of animals, but 
they are also able to store up fat from the carbo-hydrates. 

The following table of tlie analysis of the carbo-hydrates 
above described will give the reader a correct idea of their 
composition, and how nearly they approximate to each 
other : 



NOK-NITROGEifOUS NUTRIENTS. 39 

Carbon. Hydrogen. Oxygen. 

Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. 

Pure cellulose 44.44 6.17 49.39 

Cellulose, mixed with lig- 

uin .5.5.30 5.80 38.90 

Starch 44.44 6.17 49.39 

Cane sugar 42.11 6.43 51.46 

Milksugar 43.11 6.43 51.46 

Grape sugar 40.00 6.67 53.33 

Fruit sugar ... 40.00 6.67 53.33 

Gum 45.10 6.10 48.80 

Fats 76. .50 13.00 11.50 

The pectine substances have a composition probably very 
similar to gum. The above table will show, at once, how 
close a relation there is between all the members of this 
group of substances. The fats are not usually classed with 
the carbo-hydrates, because the oxygen and hydrogen are 
not in the proportion to form water, but being composed 
of the same elements, and answering the same purpose in 
the animal economy, they may all be classed together. 
Even when fat is used to supply animal heat it has two and 
one-half times the heating power of starch. 

In all plants cultivated for food, there is a greater or less 
amount of fatty matter, identical in composition with the 
several kinds of fat in animal bodies. The fatty matters 
of the food are extracted by the stomach of the animal, 
and easily assimilated. Plants prepare fatty matters from 
their elements — carbon, oxygen and hydrogen — and present 
them ready-formed to the animal. But the animal pos- 
sesses the power of preparing fat from starchy food when 
there is not fat enough ready-formed for its wants, and may 
accumulate fat from starchy food, when given in abundance. 

Inorganic Nutrients. 

Our food plants also receive from the soil phosphates of 
lime, magnesia, and soda, chlorides of sodium and potas- 
sium, oxide of iron, sulphate of iron, and potash; and 
these same compounds exist in the bodies of animals in the 



40 



FEEDING AXIIIALS. 



same combination as found in plants. The plant is there- 
fore dependent upon the soil and the animal upon the 
plant. 

That the reader may get a definite idea of the proportion 
of the mineral constituents of some of our forage plants 
and grains, together with some of the by-fodders, we give 
the following table, which will be found convenient for 
reference. We give the number of pounds, and fractions 
of a pound, of ash, and of the separate elements of that 
ash, in 100 pounds of the dry substance of hay, straw, 
grain, roots, etc. This will enable the reader more easily 
to figure the exact proportion of any mineral constituent 
in any ration fed : 



100 Pounds of 
Substance. 


< 


03 
O 

pL, 


■a 

o 

02 


6 

3) 


6 

s 
3 


o o 






6 

o 
O 


3 




lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


Meadow hay 


6.66 


i.ri 


0.47 


0.33 


0.77 


0.41 


0..34 


1.07 


0.53 


0.17 


Dead ripe hay.. 


6.63 


0.50 


0.19 


0.-J3 


0.85 


0.29 


0.05 


4,18 


0.38 


0.27 


Red clover 


5.65 


1.95 


0.09 


0.69 


1.92 


0.56 


0.17 


0.15 


0.21 


0.21 


Swedish clover. 


4.65 


1.57 


0.07 


0.71 


1.48 


0.47 


0.19 


0.06 


0.13 




Green vetches.. 


r.34 


3.09 


0.21 


0.50 


1.93 


0.94 


0.27 


0.13 


0.23 


0.15 


Green oats 


6.18 


2.41 


0.20 


0.20 


0.41 


0.51 


0.17 


2.05 


0.25 


0.15 



GREEN FODDER. 



Meadow grass 1 

ill blossom.. | 
Young grass. . . 

Timothy 

Oats beginning 

to head 

Barley begin- ■ 

ning to head ( 
Rye fiuMer . . . 
Uiingiuian I 

millet . . j ■ • ■ 

Red clover 

White clover . .. 
Swedish clover. 
Lucern .... 
Green peas 



2.33 


0.60 


0.16 


0.11 


0.27 


0.15 


0.12 


0.69 


0.19 


2.07 
2.10 


1.16 
Pr61 


0.04 
0.06 


0.06 
0.08 


0.22 
0,20 


0.22 
0.23 


0.08 
0.08 


0.21 
0.75 


0.04 
0.11 


1.70 


0.71 


0.08 


0.06 


0.12 


0.14 


0.06 


0.47 


0.08 


2.23 


0.86 


0.04 


o.or 


0.16 


0.23 


0.07 


0.70 


0.12 


1.63 


0.63 


0.01 


0.05 


0.12 


0.24 


0.02 


0.52 




2.31 


0.86 




0.19 


0.25 


0.13 


0.08 


0.67 


0.15 1 


1.34 
1.36 
1.02 
1.76 
1.37 


0.46 
0.24 
0.35 
0.45 
0.56 


02 
0.11 
0.02 
0.02 


0.16 
0.14 
0.16 
0.10 
0.11 


0.46 
0.44 
0.32 
0.85 
0.39 


0.13 
0.20 
0.10 
0.15 
0.18 


0.04 
0.12 
0.04 
0.11 
0.05 


0.04 
0.06 
0.01 
0.04 
0.04 


0.05 
0.04 
0.03 
0.03 
0.02 



0.06 

0.04 
0.08 

03 
0.05 



0.05 
0.06 



0.08 



ISrOKGANIC NUTKIENTS. 
ROOT CROP. 



41 



100 Pounds op 
Substance. 


ji 
< 


.£3 

1 


ea 
13 

o 


2 


a 

3 


P-i 


1-2 

03 


OS 
o 


5 


3 

.a 




lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


Potato 


0.94 
1.0.3 


0.56 
0.67 


0.01 


0.04 
0.03 


0.02 
0.04 


0.18 
0.16 


0.06 
0.03 


0.02 


0.03 
0.02 


0.02 


Artichoke 




Beet.... 


0.80 


0.43 


0.12 


0.04 


0.04 


0.08 


0.03 


0.02 


0.05 


0.01 


Turnip 


0.75 
0.61 


0.30 
0.31 


0.08 
0.02 


0.03 
0.01 


0.08 
0.08 


O.M) 
0.11 


0.11 
0.04 


0.02 
0.01 


0.03 
0.04 


0.04 


White turnip. .. 




Carrot 


0.88 


0..32 


0.19 


0.05 


0.09 


0.11 


0.06 


0.02 


0.03 


0.01 


Beet tops 


1.48 


0.43 


0.31 


0.14 


0.17 


0.08 


0.11 


0.07 


0.17 


0.05 


Turnip tops . . . 


1.40 


0.32 


0.11 


0.06 


0.45 


0.13 


0.14 


0.05 


0.12 


0.05 


Carrot tops 


2.61 


0.37 


0.60 


0.12 


0.86 


0.12 


0.21 


0.15 


0.19 


0.14 


Cabbage heads . . 


1.24 


0.60 


0.05 


0.04 


0.19 


0.20 


0.11 


0.01 


0.03 


0.05 



Winter wheat 
Winter rye . . . 

Barley 

Oats 

Maize fodder . 

Pea straw 

Bean straw . . . 



4.26 


0.49 


0.12 


0.11 


0.26 


0.23 


0.12 


2.82 




4.07 


0.76 


0.13 


0.13 


0.31 


0.19 


0.08 


2.37 




4.39 


0.92 


0.20 


0.11 


0.33 


0.19 


0.16 


2.36 





4.40 


0.97 


0.23 


0.18 


0.36 


0.18 


0.15 


2.12 




4.72 


1.66 


0.05 


0.26 


0.50 


0.38 


25 


l.t9 




4.92 


1.07 


0.26 


0.38 


1.86 


0.38 


0.28 


0.28 


0.30 


5.84 


2.59 


0.22 


0.46 


1.35 


0.41 


0.01 


0.31 


0.81 



0.16 
0.09 
0.13 
0.17 
0.39 
0.07 
0.22 



GRAIN AND SEEDS. 



Wheat .... 

Rye 

Barley 

Oats 

Maize 

Millet 

Sorghum . . 
Buckwheat 
Flax-seed. . 
Hemp-seed 

Peas 

Vetches . . . 
Beans 



1.77 


0.55 


0.06 


0.22 


0.06 


0.82 


0.04 


0.03 




1.73 


0.54 


0.03 


0.19 


0.05 


0.82 


0.04 


0.03 




2.18 


0.48 


0.06 


0.18 


05 


0.72 


0.05 


0.59 




2.64 


0.42 


0.10 


0.18 


0.10 


0.55 


0.04 


1.23 




1.23 


0.33 


0.02 


0.18 


0.03 


0.55 


0.01 


0.03 




1.23 


0.23 


0.07 


0.23 




0.66 


0.02 






1.60 


0.42 


0.05 


0.24 


0.02 


0.81 




0.12 




0.92 


0.21 


0.06 


0.12 


0.03 


0.44 


0.02 




0.02 


3,22 


1.04 


0.06 


0.42 


0.27 


1.30 


0.04 


0.04 




4.81 


0.97 


0.04 


0.27 


1.13 


1.75 


0.01 


57 


0.01 


2.42 


0.98 


0.09 


0.19 


0.12 


0.88 


0.08 


0.02 


0.06 


2.07 


0.63 


0.22 


0.18 


0.06 


0.79 


0.09 


04 


0.02 


2.96 


1.20 


0.04 


0.20 


0.15 


1.16 


0.15 


0.04 


0.08 



0.15 
0.17 
0.14 
0.17 
0.12 



0.17 
6. 24 
o!23 



MANUFACTURED PRODUCTS. 



Wheat bran . . . 

Rye bran 

Brewers' grain 
Malt sprouts... 

Rape cake 

Linseed cake . . 
Walnut cake. . . 
Cotton-seed cake 



5.56 


1.33 


0.03 


0.94 


0.26 


2.88 




0.06 






7.14 


1.93 


0.09 


1.13 


0.25 


3.42 










1.20 


0.05 


0.01 


0.12 


0.14 


0.46 


0.01 


0.39 . 






5.96 


2.08 




0.08 


0.09 


1.25 


0.38 


1,77 . 






5 60 


1.30 


0.01 


0.64 


61 


2.07 


0.19 


0.49 


01 




5.. 52 


1.29 


0.08 


0.88 


0.47 


1.94 


0.19 


0.36 


03 




4.64 


1.54 




0.57 


0.31 


•2.03 


0.05 


0.07 


01 




6.15 

1 


2.18 




0.26 


0.28 


2.95 


0.07 


0.25 . 







42 FEEDING ANIMALS. 

The above table is somewhat extended, but as the feeder 
often desires to know the mineral constituents of his fod- 
der, he will find this in convenient form for ascertaining 
the precise character of the mineral substances, and the 
quantity he is furnishing daily to his stock. 

Eespiratory Food. — But as these preliminary chapters 
are given to show the parallel between the nitrogenous and 
mineral elements of plants and animals, we must also ex- 
plain those non-nitrogenized substances, starch, gum, sugar, 
etc., which are not found in the animal body, although 
animals eat large quantities of starch, gum, sugar, and 
cellulose, and they are necessary for the life of the animal. 
What becomes of these substances ? Science has proved 
that they are used to support respiration. Leibig has 
named starch, gum, sugar, cellulose, etc., — composed of car= 
bon and water only — the princijjles of respiration. Let us 
illustrate this. If we slake a little burnt lime with water 
and allow the undissolved lime to settle, then pour off the 
clear lime water ; and if we then breathe through a glass 
tube into this clear lime water, the liquid soon becomes 
milky, and after a little a white powder may be seen falling 
to the bottom of the glass vessel. This proves that by 
breathing into lime water we add something to it. Chem- 
ists know that carbonic acid has a great affinity for lime, 
with which it forms a white, insoluble powder — carbonate 
of lime. Thus, while breathing, animals are constantly 
throwing off the carbon in the form of carbonic acid, and 
this carbon is derived from the starch, etc., of the food. 
Leibig has calculated that a horse, during twenty-four 
hours, throws off four to five pounds of carbon. Animals 
require food containing a large amount of starch to supply 
this element of respiration. 

This was the accepted theory of scientists to a very 
recent period. Now, however, as we have explained else- 
where, it is believed that the oxidation of the carbon of the 



RESPTRATOEY FOOD. 43 

food takes place in the cells and the capillaries of the body 
instead of the lungs, and that animal heat is thus generated 
all over the body. This shows the same necessity for car- 
bonaceous food as the first theory, and as this effete matter 
from the combustion of the carbon in the cells and capil- 
laries is constantly thrown off at the lungs, it may, al- 
though not strictly correct, be called the food of respiration. 

Here, then, we find one important use for starch, gum, 
and sugar in food ; these being composed entirely of 
carbon and water, are so simple in combination that the 
carbon is easily separated, and therefore are admirably 
adapted to generate animal heat. If the food is de- 
ficient in starch, gum, or sugar, but contains fat, then 
fat is used to supply carbon. Albuminoids also contain 
carbon ; and when there is no other resource for this 
element of combustion, albuminoids are decomposed to 
supply the carbon required ; but herbivorous animals 
do not thrive when fed wholly upon nitrogenous food. 
For this reason, foods very rich in albuminoids should 
not be fed alone — that is peas, or oil-meal should always 
be mixed with hay, straw, turnips, or other roots rich 
in' starch, sugar, etc. Fatty substances differ from starch, 
gum, and sugar, simjoly in containing more hydrogen 
than is necessary to form water with the oxygen present. 
Fatty matters are thus not so easily decomposed to furnish 
the necessary carbon as the starchy compounds. 

It becomes evident from the points discussed, that the 
health of animals cannot be sustained without a mixed 
diet ; that the food given in order to keep the animal in 
health must contain : 1. Starch, gum, sugar, or cellulose, 
to supply the carbon given off in respiration. 2. Fat, or 
fatty oil, to supply the fatty matter which exists in all 
animal bodies. 3. Gluten, albumen, legumen, or casein, 
to make up for the natural waste of the muscles and car- 
tilages, and to grow this part of the system of the young 



44 FEEDIlfG ANIMALS. 

animal. 4. Earthy phosphates, to supply the growth and 
waste of the bones ; and 5. Saline substances — sulphates 
and chlorides — to replace what is daily excreted. It is 
therefore plain, that that food is best which has the 
greatest variety of constituents. The skillful feeder must 
have a practical knowledge of all these principles, and will 
not attempt to maintain his stock on one kind of food, or 
upon any ration that does not contain all these elements 
abundantly. He will make it a point to give as great a 
variety as his circumstances will permit, that he may fully 
supply his animal's wants and tastes. 

This statement of the fundamental principles upon 
which cattle feeding is based, seemed necessary to a com- 
plete understanding of all the points that will arise in the 
treatment of the subjects proposed. 



DIGESTlOif. 45 



OHAPTEK III. 

DIGESTION. 

In" a work upon practical feeding, it maybe thonght un- 
necessary to go into the physiology of digestion, but every 
intelligent feeder should understand the general principles 
that underlie his business ; and the process of digestion 
would seem to be the fimdamental principle of animal pro- 
duction. We do not jaropose to go into any elaborate dis- 
cussion of this subject, but merely to touch upon sucli 
general i^oints as Avill give the reader some idea of the 
general process of digestion. 

Digestion Begins in the Mouth— Mastication, Salivary Glands, 
AND THE Saliva. 

The mouth is the vestibule of the alimentary canal. 
Here are crushed all the alimentary substances, which are 
often very hard, resisting and rough, and nature has pro- 
vided a very thick epidermis to cover the mucous membrane 
of the mouth, and protect it from injury in those parts 
that come in contact with these rough, hard substances, as 
on the upper surface of the tongue, palate, roof of the 
mouth, and the cheeks. And it is in this mucous mem- 
brane covering the tongue that are situated those small or- 
gans of taste, that give perception of flavors, thus exciting 
a desire for food, and no doubt informs the animal of the 
good or bad quality of tiie food. 

The saliva is secreted by glands situated around the 
cavity of the cheeks, and this flnid softens the food, 
assists in its mastication and digestion, and must have 



46 FEEDING ANIMALS. 

some chemical action upon the food after it reaches the 
stomach. 

A gland may be defined as an organ, the function of 
which is to separate from the blood some particular sub- ' 
stance, and discharge it through an excretory duct, whose 
internal surface is continuous with the mucous membrane. 
A simple gland is merely a follicle of the mucous mem- 
brane, and a collection of these follicles is a compound 
gland, and if the groups of which it is composed are 
loosely bound together like clusters of grapes, it is called 
conglomerate, as in the salivary glands ; but if united into 
a soljd mass, such as the liver, it is called a conglobate 
gland. Inside of these follicles are cells, which are the 
active agents in the secreting process, whilst they are sur- 
rounded by a network of capillaries in which the blood 
circulates and furnishes the materials for these secretions. 
These cells are so minute as to require the aid of a micro- 
scope for their examination. 

The salivary glands are five in number — four of them in 
pairs : 1, The parotid gland, which is much the largest, is 
situated at the posterior angle of the lower jaw, or near 
the ear. 2. The maxillary or sub-maxillary gland is on the 
interior central border under the lower jaw. 3. The sub- 
lingual gland is situated under the tongue. 4. The molar 
glands are situated parallel to the molar arches. 5. The 
labial (or lip glands) and the palatine glands (under mu- 
cous covering of the soft palate), these latter are mostly 
single follicles, and each has a separate excretory duct dis- 
charging its secretion into the mouth. The saliva is an 
extremely watery fluid, having only from G to 8 parts of 
solid matter in 1,000 parts, but this solid or saline matter 
plays an important part in digestion. There is an ac- 
tive ferment, called ptyalin, in saliva, which, although 
found in very small proportion, possesses the property of 
changing starch into sugar in the process of digestion, 



DIGESTION". 47 

thus rendering it soluble. The constitution of the saliva 
is also slightly alkaline, and more so while the animal is 
masticating its food. A horse or an ox is supposed to dis- 
charge about two quarts of saliva in a half hour whilst 
masticating its food. This is sufficient to insalivate a small 
ration of hay, or what the animal could masticate in that 
time. The mere sight of food excites the flow of saliva, 
causing the mouth to ''water," and the harder and drier 
the food the more the saliva will flow during mastication. 
It is also found that after swallowing even sloppy food saliva 
will continue to flow into the mouth. The saliva must be 
considered a most important factor in the process of diges- 
tion. And for this reason the food of ruminants is best 
given in such form as to insure its remastication. This is 
accomplished by mixing finely-ground food with fibrous 
fodder, causing both to be raised in the cud and remasti- 
cated. The proper preparation of dry fodder by chopping 
in a cutter, as an aid to mastic'^Ttion and digestion, will be 
considered in a future chaptei. 

Stomach of Solipeds. 

The stomach of the horse (fig. 1) is a membranous sac 
situated on the left side of the abdominal cavity, close be- 
hind the diaphragm ; has the spleen attached to its left 
extremity, and its lower part covered with the caul. It has 
been coinj)ared in shape to the Scotch bag-pipes. It is so 
situated that every contraction of the diaphragm, or inspir- 
ation of air, displaces or drives it back, and the fuller the 
stomach, the greater the labor of the diaphragm under 
quick motion and frequent breathing, hence a full meal or 
large draft of water should never be given just before great 
exertion or rapid movement. The stomach of an average 
sized horse holds only about three gallons. It has four 
coats. The outside coat lines the cavity of the belly, and 
is the common covering of all the intestines, and this coat 
secretes a fluid which prevents all friction between it and 



48 



FEEDING ANIMALS. 



the intestines. Tliis is called the peritoneum, and stretches 
around the inside of the stomach. 

The second is the muscular coat, composed of two layers 
of fibers, one running lengthways and the other circularly, 
and the contraction of these muscles give a gentle motion 
to the stomach, mingling the food more completely to- 
gether, and facilitating the intermixture of the gastric 
juice ; and these muscles also force the food, when properly 
prepared, into the intestine. 




Fig. 1.— STOMACH AND INTESTINES OF THE HORSE. 

A. The lower part of the oesophagus or gullet. 

B. The stomach laid open to show a, the cuticular, and 6, the villous coat. 

C. The duodenum or first small intestine, laid open to show the mouths of duels 

leading from the liver and pancreas. 
J), T>. The smiill intestines. 
K, H). the colon, showing its convolutions, foldings and bands. 

F. The ccccum, the principal receptacle for water. 

G. Tlie rectum. 

//. The mesentery, the folds of the peritoneum inclosing the intestines aud holding 
them in place. 



STOMACHS OF SOLIPEDS. 49 

The third, or cuticular coat {B, a, fig. 1), covers only a 
portion of the inside of the stomach, and is a continuation 
of the lining of the oesophagus or gullet. It contains num- 
erous glands which secrete a mucus fluid. It covers about 
one-half of the inside of the stomach. 

The fourth is the mucus or villous (velvet) coat {B, h), 
which secretes the gastric juice, and here true digestion 
commences. The mouths of the numerous little vessels, 
upon this coat, pour out this digesting fluid, which mixes 
with the food and converts it into chyme. After being con- 
verted into cliyme it passes the orifice called pylorus (mean- 
ing doorkeeper) and enters the small intestines; the hard or 
undissolved part of the food being turned back to undergo 
further action. 

Stomachs of Eumi]!^an"ts and Their Ftjnction'S. 

The peculiarities in form of the digestive organs of the 
different classes of our domestic animals should be well 
understood. And, having explained and illustrated that 
of the horse, ass and mule, called solipeds, we now illustrate 
and explain the more complicated digestive organs of 
ruminants. The illustrations answer equally well for cattle 
and sheep. There are very slight differences in the position 
of the organs, but this is not material to an understanding 
of the process of digestion in both. Fig. 2 was drawn by 
Prof. James Law for the Live Stock Journal, and we also 
give his written description of the stomachs of ruminants. 
Fig. 3 is the external appearance of the stomach of a young- 
sheep, taken from Dr. Eandall's " Sheep Husbandry of 
the South." Fig. 4 is an illustration of the internal 
appearance of the stomachs given by the learned author, 
Youatt. 

Professor Law, who stands in tTie front rank of compara- 
tive physiologists, after speaking of the great variety in the 
form and arrangement of the digestive organs of different 
3 



50 FEEDIKG AN"IMALS. 

classes of animals, and that these varied forms bear a strict 
relation to the habits of the animal and the condition in 
which it lives, says : 

" Tlie flesh feeders possess a very capacious stomach, in 
which the highly nitrogenous food is long retained and 
digested by the secretions of the gastric glands. The 
bowels are short and of small capacity, in accordance with 
the restricted amount of other ingredients in the food 
which are soluble in the intestinal liquids. In the herbiv- 
ora, on the other hand, which subsist on food rich in 
carbo-hydrates and comparatively poor in albuminoids, the 
true digesting stomach is small and the intestines enor- 
mously long and capacious. The capacity of the stomach 
of the dog is three-fifths of that of the entire gastro- 
intestinal canal, whereas that of the horse is only about two- 
twenty-fifths of the abdominal part of the alimentary 
tube. 

" At first sight the ruminant appears to be an exception 
to this rule, as the gastric cavities amount to no less 
than seven-tenths of the abdominal part of the digestive 
canal ; but this idea is dispelled by the consideration that 
the fourth or true digestive stomach, which alone corre- 
sponds to that of the horse or dog, is relatively as small as 
in the solipede. The first three stomachs are mainly 
macerating and triturating cavities, in which the coarse 
and imperfectly masticated herbage is stored, triturated 
and partially dissolved, while waiting for the second mas- 
tication, or for its reception by the fourth or true stomach. 

" First Stomach. — Of the four compartments or stom- 
achs, the first {paunch, rumen) is incomparably the largest. 
It has an average capacity of 250 quarts, in the ox, and 
makes up about nine-tenths of the mass of the four 
stomachs. It occupies the entire left side of the abdomen, 
from the short ribs in front to the hip bones behind, so 



STOMACHS OF RUMINANTS. 51 

that if this side of the belly were punctured at any point, 
this organ alone would be entered. It is marked externally 
by a deep notch at each end, and by two grooves connect- 
ing these on the upper and lower surfaces respectively, 
together with smaller grooves diverging from these, on 
each side. These notches and grooves correspond to inter- 
nal folds supported by strong muscular bands, and par- 
tially dividing the cavity into a right and left sac, and 
into anterior, posterior, and median compartments. The 
entire inner surface of this orga-n, excepting the muscular 
pillars, and a small portion of the left anterior sac border- 
ing on the second stomach, is thickly covered by papillae, 
most of which are flattened and leaf-like, with an elongated 
ovate outline, but some are conical or fungiform, especially 
in the left sac. 

" Second Stomach. — The second stomach (Jioney-comh- 
hag, reticulum), though spoken of as a separate organ, is 
rather a simple prolongation forward of the anterior left 
sac of the r.umen. It is separated from the rumen by a 
rather prominent fold, but the communicating opening is 
so large that the semi-liquid contents pass freely from the 
one cavity to the other during the movements of the 
stomachs. Its most prominent characteristic is the alve- 
olated or honey-comb-like arrangement of its mucous mem- 
brane. These cells vary in size and depth, being largest 
at the lower part of the organ and smaller at the upper, or 
where it joins the paunch. They extend for a short dis- 
tance on the surface of that oi-gan as well. The larger 
cells are again subdivided by smaller partitions in their 
interior. The walls of these cells are covered throughout 
by small, hard-pointed papillary eminences. These cells 
usually entangle many small, hard and pointed bodies 
which have been swallowed with the food, and it is from 
this point that such bodies often pass to perforate vital 
organs, especially the heart. 



52 



FEEDING ANIMALS. 




Pig_ 2.— THIRD AND FOURTH STOMACHS, 

As drawn by Professor Law, showing the course of the (Esophageal! Demi-canal. 

1. Gullet. 

2. Portion of the paunch, showing the villous surface. 

3. Portion of the reticulum, showing the cells. ^ i. *, 

4. CEsophagean tlemi-canal, with its muscular pillars relaxed so as to show the 

opening into the gullet above and that leading into the manifolds below. 

5. Opening from the demi-canal into the third stomach. 

6. Third stomach laid open, showing the leaves. ^ ^u <• ti. 

7. Floor of the third stomach, alontc which finely-divided food passes to the lourtn. 

8. Fourth stomach opened, and sliowing the mucous folds. 

9. Commencement of the small intestines. 



STOMACHS OF RUMINANTS. 53 

" (Esopliagean Demi-canal. — Conuectino- these organs with 
the gullet on the one hand and the third stomach on the 
other, is the demi-canal, one of the most interesting struc- 
tures in the whole economy. It may be conceived of as 
the lower portion of the gullet, extending from right to 
left across the superior surface of the anterior left sac of 
the paunch and the reticulum as far as the entrance of the 
third stomach. But in place of its forming a perfect tube, 
as elsewhere, the lower half of its walls is removed so as to 
leave a large opening of about six inches in length, com- 
municating with the rumen and reticulum. The margins 
of this opening are formed of thick pillars, made up largely 
of muscular tissue, in part forming loops around iJie ends 
of the canal, and in part diverging on the walls of the first 
two stomachs. This muscle encircles the entire ovoid 
opening, and, when contracted, brings its lips in close 
opposition, shutting off all communication between tlie 
gullet and first two stomachs, and securing a continuous, 
unbroken passage from the mouth to the third stomach. 
When, on the other hand, the muscular pillars of the 
demi-canal are relaxed, the canal remains open, and there 
is no barrier to communication between the gullet and first 
two stomachs, or between these stomachs and the third. 

" Third Stomach. — The third stomach {manifolds, oma- 
sum), a little larger than the reticulum in the ox, lies over 
that organ to its right, and above the right anterior sac of 
the rumen. Its main characteristic is the leaf-like arrange- 
ment of its interior. From its walls on the convex aspect 
twelve or fourteen folds extend quite to the opposite side 
of the viscus. In the intervals between these are an equal 
number of folds of about half the length. On each side of 
these are others still shorter, and so on until the smallest, 
which appear as simple ridges on the mucous membrane. In 
this way the flat surfaces of the folds are brought ir^to close 
relation at all points in place of leaving large intervals at 



54 



T'EEDIFG ANII^lALS. 



the convex aspect of the organ, as would be the case if all 
were of the same length. These leaves are not simple 
folds of mucous membrane, but contain also muscular 
tissue continued from the coat of the stomach, and enab- 
ling the adjacent leaves to move on each other for the 
trituration of the intervening food. Each leaf is studded 




Fig. 3. — EXTERNAL APPEABANCE OF STOMACHS. 

a. The oesophagus or gullet, eutering the rumeu or paunch. 

h, h. The rumen, or paunch, occupying; three-fourths of the abdomen. 

c. The reticulum or honey-comb — the second stomach. 

d. The omasum or manifolds— third stomach. 

e. The abomasum or fourth stomach. 

/. The commencement of the duodenum or first intestine. 

g. The place of the pylorus, a valve which separates the contents of the abomasum 
and duodenum. 



STOMACHS OF EUMIN'AlSrTS. 55 

on both sides with hard conical papillae hooked upward, 
and especially prominent towards the free margin of the 
fold in the vicinity of the passage from the demi-canal to 
the fourth stomach. Similar hooks with a corresponding 
direction are found in the lower part of the demi-canal, 
and all concur in drawing the food upward between the 
folds and retaining it until sufficiently fine to escape. This 
organ lies beneath the short ribs on the right side. 

''Fourth Stomach. — The fourth or true digesting stomach 
{rennet, abomastitn) is pear-shaped, with the thick end 
forward, and connected with the manifolds. It extends 
backward in the right JQank along the lower border of the 
rumen, and terminates by a narrow opening in the small 
intestine. It is considerably larger than either the second 
or third stomach, but incomparably smaller than the first. 
Its outer surface shows a number of spiral markings run- 
ning around it longitudinally, and corresponding to exten- 
sive loose folds of mucous membrane, as observed when it 
is laid open. Its outer surface is redder and more vascular 
than that of the other stomachs, but its inner lining or 
mucous membrane is especially soft, spongy and vascular, 
forming a marked contrast with the pale, opaque, thick and 
insensible mucous membrane lining the other stomachs. 
When magnified, this vascular surface presents throughout 
a close aggregation of small depressions or alveoli leading 
into the glandular follicles which secrete the gastric juice. 

" Functions. — The progress of food through the different 
stomachs can now be followed. It is a wide-spread belief 
that all food taken by the ox passes first into the rumen, 
from which it is propelled into the reticulum, is then sent 
back to the mouth for the second mastication, and is finally 
swallowed a second time, passing in this case into the third 
and fourth stomachs. No such regular and invariable 
course is pursued. After the first mastication, in which 



56 FEEDING AKIMALS. 

the food receives a few strokes of the jaws, and is mixed 
with a quantity of saliva varying according to the hard or 
fibrous character of the aliment, it is swallowed and passes 
into the first and second, the third or even the fourth 
stomach. Flourens first showed this on the sheep, and 
his observations have been fully corroborated by subsequent 
observers. 1st. He fed green lucern to a sheep, and killing 
it immediately after, found this aliment mainly in the 
paunch, a small quantity in the reticulum, and none in the 
third and fourth stomachs. 2d. He fed oats with the same 
results. 3d. Small pieces of roots swallowed without mas- 
tication were found only in the first two stomachs. 4th. 
Finally, after feeding pulped roots, he found the greater 
part in the rumen, but a considerable amount also in the 
second, third and fourth stomachs. It follows that while 
all coarse, bulky or fibrous aliment passes at once into the 
first two stomachs, finely divided food may gain the third 
or even the fourth without retention in either of the 
preceding ones. 

" Liquids have been found to follow a similar course 
with finely divided moist food, the greater part passing at 
once into the rumen and reticulum, while a certain amount 
passes at once through the cesophagean demi-canal to the 
third and fourth stomachs. Another feature of the passage 
of liquids is the propulsion of the fluid from the second 
stomach through the demi-canal into the third and fourth. 
This is eflFected through a series of contractions of the 
reticulum, and takes place while drinking is going on, the 
organ being rapidly filled up by the water descending from 
the mouth, as often as it may be emptied by its contrac- 
tions. This may also serve to explain how liquids and 
finely divided food pass on from the first two stomachs to 
the third and fourth, without having been returned to the 
mouth for rumination. The enormous accumulation of 
food in the paunch is surprising. It is no uncommon 



STOMACHS OF RTJMIKANTS. 



57 



thing to find 150 to 200 pounds, and this though the 
animal has been fasting for twenty-four hours. This mass 
represents but 40 to 50 pounds of solid dry food, the 
remainder being saliva carried with it in deglutition. 




Firj, 4. — INTERNAL APPEARANCE OF STOMACHS (YOUATT). 

a. The oesop!i;i!;us or gullet. 

h. The coiniuei'icemeut of the oesophagean canal, slit open, with muscular pillars 
underneath. 

c. c, c. The rumen, paunch or first stomach, slit open. 

d. The reticulum or honey-comb, slit open. 

e. The omasum or manifolds, slit open. 
/. The abomasum, slit open. 

(/. The commencement of the duodenum or first intestine. 

h. The duodenum, slit open. 

i, m, I. Wands, showing the course of oesophagean canal, opening of stomachs, etc. 



58 FEEDING ANIMALS. 

After drinking, the proportion of water is materially in- 
creased. In the normal condition, the solids float in the 
liquid and are kept loose, open and mobile, one part on 
another by its intermixture. The reticulum usually con- 
tains a certain amount of liquid, and but little solid food. 
" These organs move by slow contractions from end to 
end, which gives a churning motion to the contents, and 
forces the liquids continually through the semi-solid mass. 
In this way, tne transformation of starch into sugar by 
the action of the saliva is favored, and all soluble con- 
stituents (sugar, gluten, albumen, salts, acids, etc.), are 
dissolved out, and are sooner or later passed on into the 
fourth stomach with the liquid solvent. Besides these 
solvent and chemical actions, the food undergoes macera- 
tion, softening, and disintegration, and is thus prepared 
for subsequent easy and perfect: mastication and digestion. 
"Rumination. — Concisely stated, this consists in the 
return of food from the first two stomachs to the mouth, 
its mastication, and its swallowing and descent to any one 
or more of the four stomachs. Popular writers have been 
generally misled by the doctrine of Flourens on this 
matter. He opened the gullet in a sheep, allowing the 
escape of the saliva which should have floated the contents 
of the rumen, and when he found these contents firm and 
solid, and a little ovoid solid mass between the lips of the 
oesophagean demi-canal, he concluded that this was the 
form in which food was retuTned into the mouth. One 
fact should have forbidden such a conclusion — his sheep 
never ruminated nor brought up anything to ruminate. 
The truth is this, that the solid packed state of the food 
in the rumen, such as he found, is an insurmountable 
barrier to chewing the cud. Whether this is produced by 
suppressed secretion of saliva, by salivary fistula with the 
discharge of this liquid externally, or by the simple forced 
abstinence from water, the result is the same. Whenever 



RUMINATION". 59 

the food fails to float loosely in the liquid, and becomes 
aggregated in a firm, unbroken mass, rumination becomes 
impossible. 

"If we watch the ox ruminating it will be seen that 
when a cud is brought up, the act is immediately followed 
by a swallowing of liquid, after which the animal begins 
leisurely to chew the solid matters. These loose solids are 
floated up in a quantity of liquid, both having flowed into 
the demi-canal during the compression of the stomach, 
and been returned to the mouth by the contraction of this 
canal and of the gullet in a direction from below upward. 
On reaching the mouth the solids are seized between the 
tongue and j^alate, and the liquids returned. If the con- 
tents of the rumen are accumulated in firm masses, with 
no detached floating material, it is manifest that liquid 
only could be brought up. If, on the other hand, the 
liquids present are only sufficient to impregnate these 
masses without floating them, nothing whatever can be 
brought up. Like the sheep of Flourens, the subject 
ceases to ruminate. Colin demonstrated this use of the 
liquid by placing four stitches at the opening of the demi- 
canal, so as to prevent the entrance of pellets, or of any- 
thing but fluids and finely disintegrated solids. Yet the 
subjects continued to chew the cud as before. 

•"During rumination the already softened aliments are 
still more perfectly broken down by the teeth, and mixed 
with a new secretion of saliva, and are thus better pre- 
pared for a continuance of the chemical and mechanical 
changes which they have already been undergoing in the 
paunch. 

'•'It has not been clearly made out to whut stomach food 
is returned after rumination. But it may be fairly inferred 
that like finely divided soft food, after the first mastication, 
it passes in varying proportions into all four stomachs. 
What returns to the first two, is no doubt returned in part 



60 FEEDING ANIMALS. 

to the moutli, oftener than once, and in part followed the 
known course of other finely divided matters in being 
propelled into the cBSophagen demi-canal and manifolds by 
the contractions of the reticulum. 

"The conditions essential to ruminatriou are: 1st, a 
sufficient plenitude of paunch; 3d, an abundance of water; 
3d, perfect quiet — absence of all excitement; 4th, a fair 
measure of health. 

" The use of the third stomach is merely to triturate and 
reduce still further the food which has been already largely 
disintegrated in the first two stomachs and in rumination. 
The muscular folds seize and retain the solid particles, and 
keep up the grinding process until the mass is too fine to 
be longer caught or retained by the barbed papillae. The 
food compressed between the muscular folds loses the 
greater part of its liquid, so that the contents are normally 
firm and partially dry, though never quite so in health. 
When dried to the extent of adhering to the folds and 
bringing off the cuticular layer upon its surface, it is to be 
considered as abnormal. 

" The uses of the fourth stomach are precisely those of 
the true stomach in other animals. Its acid gastric juice 
acting on the nitrogenous elements of the food, trans- 
forms them into peptones, a fine milky liquid, fitted to be 
absorbed and added to the vital fluids. The mucous folds 
in this stomach, covered as they are by peptic glands, 
greatly increase the secretions of the digesting fluid and 
enable the animal to digest promptly the food so beauti- 
fully elaborated and prepared by the first three stomachs 
and the act of rumination. These complicated processes 
to which the food is subjected, serve to account for the 
absence of fibrous elements in the dung, and for the finely 
attenuated state of that excretion ; and also for the ease 
with which ruminants can subsist on coarse and compara- 
tively innutritious fodder. It explains, too, the com- 



GASTRIC DIGESTION". 61 

parative immunity of the fourth stomach from disease, 
while the first three, like the stomach of the horse, are 
very obnoxious to disorder. The possibility of incredibly 
long fasts on the part of the ruminant, may be explained 
by the constant presence of a large mass of food in the 
paunch, for although rumination may be almost or quite 
suspended, yet if water is freely taken, small quantities are 
continually transferred from the first two stomachs to, the 
third and fourth." 

GrASTRic Digestion. — As before mentioned, it is in the 
fourth stomach that true digestion begins. The innumera- 
ble glands of the stomach secrete the gastric juice, and 
when food comes into this stomach the juice is poured out 
in large quantity. It has a sour taste and smell. It con- 
tains muriatic acid and a little pepsin. The latter acts 
strongly upon the albuminoids contained in the food. It 
makes them soluble in water, and thus in condition to 
enter into the circulation. The quantity of pepsin is very 
small, but appears to have the power of acting over and 
over many times in connection with the muriatic acid in 
rendering the albuminoid matter soluble. The soluble 
carbo-hydrates (as we have seen converted into sugar by the 
saliva) are absorbed by the blood-vessels of the stomach 
and enter into the circulation, and the soluble albuminoids 
or protein is absorbed by the lymphatic vessels of the 
stomach. But there is much of the nutriment in the food 
not liberated in the stomach, and all this passes through 
the pylorus into the intestines (at G, fig. 3). Let us ex- 
amine cursorily : 

Intestinal Digestion. — The alimentary canal is con- 
tinued from the stomach, in the abdominal cavity, by a 
long tube doubled on itself in many folds, and ends at the 
posterior opening of the digestive apparatus. This long 
tube is the intestine. It is narrow and uniform in size in 



62 FEEDIN"G AKIMALS. 

its anterior portion, called small intestine, but is irregu- 
larly dilated in its posterior part, and here called large 
intestine. 

The small intestine in the horse {D D, fig. 1) is a cylindrical 
tube from 1 to 1% inches in diameter, and is about 24 yards 
long. The internal surface of the small intestine, like the 
stomach and other viscera, is provided with a muscular 
coat, and a mucous membrane ; the former produces the 
peristaltic motion which moves its contents along toward 
the coecum, and the latter is covered with glandular folli- 
cles Avhich pour out a digestive fluid — an alkaline mucus. 
The small intestine in its duodenal portion receives through 
two orifices the bile and pancreatic juice, and these with 
the intestinal mucus, are constantly acting upon and com- 
plete the digestion of the food passing through it. It is 
also in this intestine that the nutritive principles of the 
food are absorbed and pass into the general circulation. 
This leads into the large intestine, which is divided, in its 
difi'ereut portions, into the ccecum, the large colon, small 
colon and the rectum. 

The ccecum in the horse {F, fig. 1) is about 3 feet in length, 
and has a capacity of a little over 7 gallons. This part of 
the large intestine furnishes a reservoir for the large quanti- 
ties of fluid ingested by herbivorous animals. Here, what 
is left of the assimilable matters of the food, is dissolved 
out and enter into the circulation through the absorbents 
of the mucous membrane of the large intestine. 

The colon {E E) is divided into two parts, the large and 
small colon. The former is from 10 to 13 feet in length, and 
there contracts into the small colon. It has a capacity for 
holding 18 gallons. The small colon is about twice the 
diameter of the small intestine, and about 10 feet in 
length. The large colon absorbs fluids and soluble nutri- 
tive matters. When the matters taken for food reaches the 
small colon, deprived of its assimilable principles, the ex- 



INTESTINAL DIGESTION". 63 

cretory substances are here thrown oat on the surface of 
the intestinal tube, and it now becomes excrement or 
faeces. These excrements, compressed by the peristaltic 
contractions of the muscular coat, are rolled up into little 
rounded masses, shoved into the rectum, and in due course 
expelled. 

The rectum (G) appears to be merely the extremity of 
the small colon. 

1. Intestines of Euminants. — The small intestine 
of the ox is folded in a multitude of festoons, is twice the 
length of the small intestine of the horse — averaging about 
120 feet — and is about one-half the size. The large intes- 
tine is about 30 feet in length, but is less in size than that 
in the horse. In the sheep the small intestine is about 70 
feet long, and the large intestine 20 feet. Neither in the 
ox or sheep is there such a marked distinction between the 
small and large colon as in the horse. 

2. Intestines of the Pig. — The average length of the 
small intestine of the pig is 72 feet, and the large intestine 
18 feet. Their general disposition in the digestive cavity 
is somewhat similar to those of the ox, though only the 
last portion of the colon is included between the layers of 
the mesentary ; for the rest of its extent it is outside that 
membrane, and forms a distinct mass. 

The small intestine has a very large peyerian gland, oc- 
cupying the latter portion of the canal as a band 5 to 6 feet 
long. This is an aggregation of secretory follicles. The 
pig is noted for its capacity to digest and assimilate a very 
large amount of food in proportion to its weight of body. 
Its alimentary canal shows how this large amount of con- 
centrated food is prepared and assimilated. 

Lawes and Gilbert made many interesting experiments in 
feeding oxen, sheep, and pigs, and they found that the pig 
utilized his food better than either of the other classes of 



64 FEEDING ANIMALS. 

animals. And in explanation they give the proi^ortion of 
the stomachs, and the contents as constituting: 

" In oxen about 11)^ percent, of the entire Weight of the body. 
" In sheep about 7}4 per cent, of the entire weight of the body. 
" In pigs about 1}{ per cent, of the entire weight of the body." 

" The intestines and their contents, on the other hand, 

stand in the opposite relation. Thus, of the entire body, 

these amounted : 

" In the pig to about 6J^ per cent. 
' ' In the sheep to about '6% per cent. 
" In the oxen to about 2% per cent." 

These facts, they think, explain how the ruminant can 
take food with so large a proportion of indigestible woody 
fibre, whilst the well-fed pig takes so large a proportion of 
starch' — that in the latter the primary transformations are 
supposed to occur "chiefly after leaving the stomach, and 
more or less throughout the intestinal canal." 

And as time is a most important element in feeding, it 
taking a given amount of food to support the life of the 
animal and waste of its tissues, and as the pig can digest 
and assimilate so much more food in a given time, in pro- 
portion to its weight of body than the ox or sheep, it has 
so much more nutriment to apply to an increase of its 
weight, and this may be considered as an explanation of its 
greater gain from a given amount of food. 

Other Organs annexed to the Digestive Canal. 

The most important of these are the two glands — the 
liver and pancreas, which pour into the intestines the bile 
and pancreatic juice — also a glandiform organ, the siJleen, 
as to the ofl&ce of which physiologists are in doubt. 

The Liver is the largest gland in the body, and is situ- 
ated in the abdominal cavity, to the right of the dia- 
phraghm and downward and adjacent to the stomach, and 
partly in contact with them. The weight of a healthy 



INTESTINAL DIGESTION. 65 

liver in a medium-sized horse is eleven pounds. In its ex- 
ternal form, it is flattened before and behind, and irregu- 
larly lengthened in an eliptical form, thick in its center, 
and thin towards its borders, which are notched in such a 
manner as to divide it into three principal lobes. The 
front face is convex, smooth, and having a deep notch for 
the passage of the large vein, called vena cava. The back 
face is also smooth and convex, and is entered by the 
portal vein, hepatic artery, and nerves ; and more biliary 
ducts leave the liver. 

Viewing the liver in position, it is found that the front 
face is applied against the diaphragm, and the back face in 
contact with the stomach, duodenum, and colon. 

The liver secretes bile and sugar. It secretes bile from 
the blood of the portal vein, which comes from the intes- 
tines charged with assimilable substances. It is supposed 
to assist in purification of the blood, in digestion and in 
the generation of animal heat, as the elements it absorbs 
are rich in carbon and hydrogen. The sugar formed in the 
liver finds its way into the blood, and is carried off by the 
veins. It is elaborated in hepatic cells by the transforma- 
tion of starch, or a similar substance, by contact with a 
kind of animal yeast or diastase in the interior of these cells. 
The sugar is passed off in the veins and the bile is carried 
away in the biliary ducts to the gall bladder for storage till 
required. The bile is composed of soda in combination 
with glycocholic, taurocholic and several other acids with 
ammonia. The soda comes from the common salt of the 
food. The action of bile in digestion is largely upon 
the fat, which it decomposes and turns into an emulsion, 
separating it into very minute globules, similar to butter 
globules in milk. 

Another office it is supposed to perform, is to change the 
undissolved starch into sugar and facilitate its absorption 
into the circulation. It is also thought to assist in pre- 



66 FEEDING ANIMALS. 

serving the albuminoids, with many offices not fully de- 
termined. 

The liver is regarded as a filter to separate excrementi- 
tious matters from the blood, as well as supplying an im- 
portant agent in digestion. 

The Pakceeas. — This organ has a close resemblance to 
the salivary glands. It is situated in front of the kidneys, 
and behind the liver. Its weight, in the horse, is about 17 
ounces. 

The pancreas receives its blood by the hepatic and great 
mesenteric' arteries. Its secretion, or juice, has an alkaline 
action, and contains several ferments ; a diastase capable of 
turning starch into sugar ; trypsin, acting on the albumi- 
noids, and a ferment that emulcifies fats. The latter office 
is stated by Chauveau to be its principal one. It seems 
certain that the action of the pancreatic juice is very im- 
portant on several classes of food elements. 

The Spleen. — This organ differs from the glands in not 
having an excretory duct. It has been called a vascular 
gland, but its uses are not fully understood. It is sickle- 
shaped, and is suspended near the great curvature of the 
stomach. The tissue of the spleen has a violet blue color, 
sometimes approaching to red, is elastic, tenacious and 
soft, yields to the pressue of the finger and retains the im- 
print. It is the seat of disease called splenic fever, caused 
by its engorgement of blood. It has been called a reser- 
voir of blood from the portal vein. The substance of the 
spleen is easily dilated, and its elasticity favors this view. 
The red globules of blood are supposed to be destroyed in 
the spleen. 

It does not appear to be indispensably necessary to life, 
as animals have lived, in apparent health, after its removal 
from the body. 



CIRCULATION-. 67 

Circulation". — It i^ not necessary to our purpose to go 
into any extended explanation of this important animal 
function, but it will be sufficient to mention tbat this con- 
sists in the incessant motion of the blood, propelled by the 
heart through the arteries to all the inner and outer sur- 
faces of the body, permeating every tissue ; from thence 
returning by the veins to the heart, and thence to the lungs, 
where by contact with the oxygen of the air, it is purified 
and rendered fit to nourish the tissues, and returning from 
the lungs to the heart, it is sent again on its rounds to every 
part of the body. We explained in a previous chapter the 
ai^pearance and chemical composition of the blood. We 
have pointed out how the blood is elaborated from the 
food in process of digestion, and then absorbed into the 
circulation. 

The heart is composed of strong muscular fibre, and di- 
vided into four cavities, having valves which regulate the 
flow of blood. These muscles expand and contract with 
regularity, producing what we call "heart-beats." There 
are something- like four of these ''beats" to one inspira- 
tion of the lungs. 

The Pulse. — As nature is regular, these beats or the 
pulse becomes an indication of health or an abnormal 
state of the system, and it is therefore an accomplishment 
in a cattle-feeder to understand the pulse of different ani- 
mals. This will give him a better knowledge of the real 
condition of the system than any outward appearance. 

Dr. James Law (in his Veterinary Adviser) says : The 
pulse in full-grown animals at rest may be set down per 
minute as : Horse 36 to 46 ; ox 38 to 42, or in a hot 
building, with full paunch, 70 ; sheep, goat, and pig, 70 to 
80. In old age it may be 5 less in large quadrupeds, and 
20 to 30 in small ones. Youth and small size imply a 
greater rapidity. The new-born foal has a pulse three 
times as frequent as the horse, the six-months colt double, 



68 FEEDING ANIMALS. 

and the two-year-old one and a quarter. It is increased by 
hot, close buildings, exertion, fear, a nervous temperament, 
and pregnancy. In large quadrupeds there is a monthly 
increase of four to five beats per minute after the 6th 
month. Independently of such condition, a rapid pulse 
implies fever, inflammation or debility. 

The pulse may be felt wherever a considerable artery 
passes over a superficial bone ; thus on the cord felt running 
across the border of the lower jaw, just in front of its 
curved portion ; beneath the bony ridge which extends up- 
ward from the eye ; in horses, inside the elbow ; in cattle, 
over the middle of the first rib, or under the tail. 

The force of the pulse varies in the different species in 
health, thus it is full and moderately tense in the horse ; 
smaller and harder in the ass and mule ; full, soft and roll- 
ing in the ox ; small and quick in sheep ; firm and hard 
in swine. In disease it may become more frequent, slow, 
quick (with sharp impulse), tardy (with slow, rolling 
movement), full, strong, loeak, small (when thread-like but 
quite distinct), hard (when with jarring sensation), soft 
(when the opposite), opi^ressed (when the artery is full and 
tense^ but the impulse jerking and difficult, as if the flow 
were obstructed), jerking and receding (when with empty, 
flaccid vessel, it seems to leap forward at each beat), ioiter- 
mittent (when a beat is missed at regular intervals), un- 
equal (when some beats are strong and others weak). Be- 
sides these a peculiar thrill is usually felt with each beat in 
very weak, bloodless conditions. 

The jerking, intermittent, unequal and irregular pulses 
are especially indicative of heart disease. The jerking 
pulse is associated with disease of the valves at the com- 
mencement of the great aorta which carries blood from the 
left side of the heart, and is accompanied by a hissing or 
sighing noise with the second heart sound. The intermit- 
tent pulse implies functional derangement of the heart, but 
not necessarily disease of structure. 



CIKCULATIOK. 69 

The unequal and irregular pulse is met in cases of fatty 
degeueratioQ, disease of the valves on the left side, cardiac 
dilation, etc. 

Palpitation. — The application of the hand over the chest, 
behind the left elbow, will detect any violent and tumultu- 
ous beating, irregularity in the force of successive beats, etc. 

It is certainly very important that the skillful feeder 
should, by frequent practice, acquaint himself with the 
pulse in health and disease. For by this he may be able to 
apply the " ounce of prevention " which is " worth more 
than a pound of cure." 

The best feeders cultivate assiduously the faculty of ob- 
servation. Close observation for a few years, will cause 
him to detect at once the condition of the animal by its 
attitude and general appearance. 

Kespiration". — To maintain life in animals, requires 
not only nutritive matters to be absorbed into the circula- 
tion from the digestive canal, but the oxygen of the air 
must enter with these nutritive elements into the circula- 
tion. The effect of the oxygen is to expel carbonic acid 
gas and to give a bright red color to the blood. It comes 
in contact with all the minute structures of the general 
capillary system, exciting an activity in the tissues, and, as 
is supposed, inducing a combustible action which evolves 
the heat of the animal body. And this constitutes the 
process of respiration. 

The apparatus by which this process of respiration is 
carried on consists of the nasal cavities, larynx, trachea, 
and lungs. 

The Nostrils perform the important function of ad- 
mitting the air to the nasal cavities on its way to the lungs. 
Their easy dilation allows the admission of a greater or less 
volume of air suited to the requirements of respiration. 
And in solipeds the nostrils constitute the only entrance 



70. FEEDING ANIMALS. 

by which air can be introduced to the trachea, by reason of 
the large development of the soft palate, which prevents 
the entrance of air by the mouth. These orifices are, for 
this reason, larger than in other domestic animals that 
make use of the mouth as well as nostrils for the admis- 
sion of air. 

The nasal cavities contain the olfactory membrane and 
nerves, which give the sense of odors, besides other less im- 
portant membranes, and conduct the air to the larynx, 
which is a cartilaginous framework, forming a tube in- 
tended f-or the passage of air during the act of respiration. 
It has also the power of dilating and contracting to ac- 
commodate the volume of air introduced into or expelled 
from the lungs, and when partially paralyzed causes what is 
called "roaring." But the most interesting office of the 
larynx is as an air organ for tlie articulation of sounds. 

The trachea is a flexible and elastic tube, formed of a 
series of cartilaginous rings, which connect with and con- 
tinue the larynx and terminate above the base of the heart 
in two divisions called the bronchi. 

Each of the two broncM, or terminal branches of the 
trachea, join to and imbed themselves in the substance 
of the lungs. Their substance is cartilaginous like the 
trachea. 

The thorax, or pectoral cavity, holds not only the lungs, 
but the heart and the large vessels that spring from or 
pass to the heart, with apart of the oesophagus, trachea and 
nerves. The thorax rests upon and is surrounded by the 
ribs, sternum and the dorsal vertebree, and is above the dia- 
phragm. It performs an important part in respiration. 
It is dilated and contracted by the movements of the dia- 
phragm and ribs. The lung is applied against the thor- 
acic walls, and follows this cavity in its movements, dilat- 
ing and contracting with inspiration or expiration. 



BESPIEATION. 71 

The Lungs. — This necessary organ of respiration is of 
a spongy texture, lodged in the thoracic cavity, divided into 
two independent halves or lobes — a right and a left, the 
left being a little smaller than the right lobe. The pul- 
monary tissue of the mature animal is of a bright rose 
color ; in the foetus its color is deeper because not yet in- 
flated with air. The tissue is soft but very strong and 
remarkably elastic. It is very light, floats in water if 
healthy, and this is attributed to the air held in the lung 
vesicles. The lung of a foetus will sink in water, but after 
once being inflated, the air cannot be expelled so as to 
cause it to sink. The relative weight of the lungs to body 
is much greater in the adult animal than in the fcetus, it 
being one-thirtieth in the former to one-sixtieth of the 
whole body in the latter. 

It is demonstrated that the blood, after losing its bright 
red color and the properties which maintain the vitality of 
the tissues, returns from all parts of the body by the veins 
to the right side of the heart, and is propelled thence into 
the lung where it is regenerated by contact with the air. 
These air cells or vesicles in the lungs are wonderfully mi- 
nute, being only from 1-3800 to 1-1600 part of an inch in 
diameter. And between these vesicles is an exceedingly 
thin, elastic tissue, with a few muscular fibres. The pul- 
monary veins carries the blood back to the heart after re- 
generation in the lungs. The principal thing to remember 
is, that the luDg is the seat of the absorption of oxygen by 
and the expulsion of carbonic acid from the returned or 
vitiated blood, or the transformation of dark into bright 
red colored blood. 

The lung is early developed in the foetus, and its lobular 
texture is well defined through the whole period of fcetal 
existence. 

Respiratory Action of the Skin. — The skin is thereat of 
a constant and important respiratory action, as it absorbs 



72 FEEDING ANIMALS. 

oxygen and throws off carbonic acid, and when this action 
is interrupted the health of the animal sufiers. The true 
skin underlies the scarf skin, and is filled by capillary 
blood-vessels, and it is in its passage through these capil- 
laries that the blood gives off carbonic acid and absorbs 
oxygen. The amounts thus given off and taken up are 
quite considerable. The excretions from the skin in the 
form of "insensible perspiration," also carries off large 
amounts of water. 

This also is the means of relieving the body of surplus 
heat. Millions of pores permeate the skin, and large vol- 
umes of vapor are given off through these pores. These 
orifices are exceedingly minute, convoluted tubes, lying 
under the skin, and are found to be from one-fifteenth to 
one-tenth of an inch in length. Erasmus Wilson estimated 
the number of these tubes in every square inch of the sur- 
face of the body to be 2,800, and the total number of square 
inches on the surface of the body of an average sized man 
to be 2,500, therefore his skin is drained with 28 miles of 
these tubes, having seven millions of openings. Water, 
when converted into vapor by the heat of the body, ex- 
pands to 1,700 times its liquid bulk, and in doing this ab- 
sorbs a large amount of heat, and the watery vapor escapes 
through the pores of the skin, thus cooling the body. 

This shows the immense importance of regulating the 
temperature of the atmosphere surrounding the bodies of 
animals, as all the heat of the body, as well as its growth, 
comes from the food. 

Animal Heat. — It was formerly supposed by physiolo- 
gists that animal heat was produced by the oxidation or 
combustion of the carbon of the food in the lungs, by 
means of the oxygen inhaled. But later investigations 
explain these phenomena in a different manner. Dr. 
Armsby, m his late work, explains this later theory con- 
cisely,* thus : 



USINAEY ORGANS. 73 

"The distribution of oxygen through the body is aq- 
complished by means of the circulation. Each little cor- 
puscle carries its load of oxygen from the lungs through 
the heart and arteries into the capillaries. There the sub- 
stances formed in the minute cells of the tissue by the de- 
composition of their contents under the influence of the 
vital force, diflFuse into the blood, and here they meet the 
oxygen contained in the corpuscles, and, uniting with it, 
are burned, producing animal heat. Innumerable inter- 
mediate products are formed in this process, but the final 
result is iu all cases the same. All tlue non-nitrogenous 
.substances yield carbonic acid and water; the nitrogenous 
ones the same substances, and in addition iirea, the char- 
acteristic ingredient in urine. Urea is a crystallizable body 
of comparatively simple composition, which together with 
small amounts of other substances, contains all the nitro- 
gen and part of the carbon and hydrogen of the albumi- 
noids, from which it is derived. In the urine of herbiv- 
orous animals it is, in part, replaced by liippuric acid. All 
these oxydations take place in the cells and capillaries of 
the body, and it is there, consequently, and not in the 
lungs, that animal heat is produced." 

This latter theory, which seems the more philosophical, 
does not change any of the practical conclusions hereto- 
fore drawn in reference to the expenditure of food in the 
production of animal heat. It therefore does not intro- 
duce any practical new philosophy into the problem of 
feeding and growing animals. 

Urustart Organ's. — These organs — very important in 
the animal economy — are charged with eliminating from 
the blood with the surplus water, the excrementitious nitro- 
genous products resulting from the exercise of the vital 
functions. 

The Icidneys, the essential organs of urinary secretion, 
are two glandular organs, situated in the abdominal cavity, 

4 



74 FEEDIN-Q ANIMALS. 

one on each side of the spinal column. The right kidney 
comes foi'Avard beneath the two last ribs, whilst the left 
only reaches the 18th rib. The right kidney is slightly the 
largest. The urinary secretion is supposed to be simply a 
filtration of these elements contained in the blood through 
the tissue of the kidneys. 

TJie ureters are membranous canals, having about the 
diameter of a pipe-stem, which convey the urine from the 
kidneys to the bladder. 

The Madder is a membranous, ovoid reservoir, located in 
the pelvic cavity, and occupying a space according to the 
quantity of urine it contains. The bladder serves a most 
useful purpose in retaining the urine to be voided at con- 
venient periods. 

Tlie urethra is common to the urinary and generative 
organs. 

EXCKBTIONS. 

The decompositions and oxidations constantly going on 
in the body charge the blood with carbonic acid, urea and 
some other nitrogenous products. These must be ex- 
creted from the body or injury — even poisoning — would 
soon result. 

We have seen how the blood is relieved of this excre- 
mentitious matter by filtering through the tissue of the 
kidneys and thence passing to the bladder. There has 
been various theories as to the excretion of nitrogen — 
whether the decomposed albuminoid matter in the body is 
all excreted with the urine and faeces, or whether some 
material portion of it is excreted from the lungs and skin. 
Boussingault, Regnault and Keiset all held the opinion that 
nitrogen, in a gaseous form, is excreted from the lungs and 
skin. This opinion was quite general until the experi- 
ments of Karl Voit appeared to furnish reasonable proof 
that urine and the solid dung contained all the nitroge- 



EXCRETIONS. 



n 



nous matters excreted from the body. And later experi- 
ments also confirm Volt's conclusions. The present state 
of the evidence seems to establish the fact that ail the ni- 
trogen of the food, except what is appropriated to an in- 
crease of body, or the production of milk, is recovered in 
the visible excrements. This has been proved by experi- 
ments upon various animals, and is a matter of the 
highest importance in understanding a rational system of 
feeding. 

Experiments have included oxen, milch cows, sheep, etc. 
We copy the following table from Dr. Armsby's Manual of 
Cattle-feeding. This includes oxen and milch cows at 
three different stations. The determination of the nitro- 
gen in the excrement also includes that in the milk when 
the experiment relates to milch cows. The weight is given 
in grammes (^V of ^^ ounce). 







Nitrogen in 


Difference. 


Place. 


Length of Feed- 












ing. 


Food. 
Grammes. 


Excrements. 
Grammes. 


Grammes. 


Per cent. 


Munich 


6 days 


241.5 


238.53 


—2.97 


1.2 


Mockern 


20 to 25 days 


120.5 


122.0 


+ 1.5 


1.2 


Mockein 


20 to 25 days 


121.0 


117.5 


—3.5 


2.9 


Mockern 


20 to 2.5 days 


117.4 


113.1 


-4.3 


3.6 


Alockern 


20 to 25 days 


114.5 


120.0 


+ 5.5 


4.8 


Mockern 


20 to 25 days 


114.8 


108.4 


—6.4 


5.6 


Mockern 


20 to 25 days 


121.4 


113.2 


-8.2 


6.7 


Hohenheim. .. 


Nearly 6 weeks 


105. 2 


11)4.5 


— 0.7 


0.4 


Hohenheim. .. 


Nearly 6 weeks 


169.1 


109.8 


+ 0.7 


0.4 



Sheep were experimented with to determine this point at 
Weende Experiment Station, and, when allowance was 
made for the growth of the wool, the excrements fully ac- 
counted for all the nitrogen in the food. 

Stohmann, at Halle Experiment Station, proved that the 
nitrogen of the food was all found in the visible excre- 
ments of the goat; and it may thus be considered as es- 
tablished that all the nitrogen of the food of our domestic 



76 FEEDING ANIMALS. 

animals is recoYered in the excrements, together with the 
increase in the weight of the body. 

Eespiratory Products. — With a view of further de- 
termining the correctness of the conclusions above stated, 
Grouven experimented upon the direct products of respi- 
ration to determine whether any ammonia may pass off 
through the lungs or skin, and found a mere infinitessimal 
quantity of this gas thus excreted; thus confirming the 
previous conclusion. 

And experimenters propose to determine the gain or loss 
of fiesli in an animal by comparing the whole amount of 
nitrogen in the food with the whole amount of nitrogen 
in the excrements. If the nitrogen in the excrements is 
less than in the food, then the animal is gaining in flesh, 
but if more in the excrements, then the animal is losing 
flesh. 

Carbon is excreted from the body partly in the urinary 
excretions, but more through the lungs and skin. 

Hydrogen is excreted partly in the urea but mostly in the 
form of water. 

Excretion of Ash Constituents. — The ash or min- 
eral matter of the food is excreted in the urine and in the 
solid dung. Liebig held that phosphoric acid was generally 
not found in the urine of herbivorous animals because this 
liquid is nearly always alkaline, and fodder generally con- 
tains much lime which unites with the phosphoric acid, 
forming phosphate of lime. Phosphate of lime being in- 
soluble in alkaline fluids, and thus phosphoric acid is not 
likely to be found in the urine except when there is more 
than can unite with the lime. Bertram found that when 
magnesia takes the place of the lime, phosphoric acid ap- 
pears in the urine, even when that is alkaline. When the 
food is rich in phosphoric acid and comparatively poor in 



VALUE OF MANUKE. 77 

lime, the ash of the urine will be found 20 to 40 per cent, 
of phosphoric acid ; for instance, when the food is milk 
or when animals are fed upon rich grains. But when ru- 
minants are fed exclusively upon coarse fodder containing 
much lime, very little phosphoric acid is found in the 
urine. 

It will thus be seen that the excretion of phosphoric 
acid in the urine will depend upon the kind of food given. 
When not found in the urine it is excreted in the solid 
dung; but this usually occurs when food is given that is 
poor in this element and comparatively rich in lime — and 
therefore in all rich feeding the phosphoric acid is princi- 
pally excreted in the urine. 

Of potash and soda contained in the food some 95 per 
cent, is excreted in the urine, likewise 20 to 30 per cent, of 
the magnesia, and nearly all of the sulphuric acid and 
chlorine, but only a very little lime. 

All the rest of the ash constituents that are not used in 
the body or in the production of milk, together with the 
silica, are excreted in the dung. 

We have endeavored in the above to give a short and 
clear explanation of animal excretions. Careful attention 
to these physiological facts will enable the stock feeder 
to understand the manurial value of the different foods, 
and also the comparative value of the liquid and solid 
excretions. 

Value of Mai^tee. 

The economic feeding of farm stock requires a careful 
consideration of the value of their manure. In the chief 
countries of Europe where agriculture is most intelligently 
conducted, the value of the manure is one of the chief factors 
entering into the problem of cattle, sheep and swine hus- 
bandry. Whilst in this country, with our so lately virgin 
soil, the value of the manure has only recently been seri- 



78 FEEDING ANIMALS. 

ously considered. But the clearest foresight, even in the 
newly-settled West, is now studying this question of com- 
pensation for fertility removed by constant cropping; and 
there, the principal location of our present meat produc- 
tion, and soon to be also of our dairy productions, this 
problem miist be considered on the same basis as it is in 
the meat-producing regions of Europe. 

We have just seen that the nitrogen and mineral matter 
of the food are all recovered in the visible excrement, ex- 
cept what is stored up in the body of the animal as an in- 
crease of its weight. In general terms — the disposition of 
the food consumed by an animal is as follows : The indi- 
gestible part passes nearly unchanged through the body — a 
part is assimilated into the body to replace the natural 
waste of the system, but is itself afterward disorganized 
and ejected ; the rest is converted into the body of the 
animal as an increase of its substance — that is, the undi- 
gested food and the aliment which has undergone conver- 
sion into flesh and other tissues, and subsequent disorgan- 
ization, constitute the excrements or manure. The richer 
in nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash the food is, the 
more valuable must be the manure. And it thus follows, 
that the actual money value of a food is not to be found 
merely in the amount of flesh which it makes, but also in 
the value of the manure produced from it. 

As the richest food produces the richest manure, and as 
all the fertilizing elements of the food which are not re- 
quired for replacing waste or producing growth in the 
animal are fou.id in the manure, so that many English 
feeders seem quite indifferent as to the proper adjustment 
of the ration to the actual needs of the animal — satisfied 
that whatever is not returned in growth and laying on of 
fat is found in the manure heap — they often feed to steers 
8 to 13 pounds of oil cakes when the animal cannot utilize 
more than 6 pounds of this highly nitrogenous food. Al- 



VALUE OF MANURE. 79 

though the manure is richer for this excess of nitrogenous 
food which passes in an undigested state, yet the economy 
of the practice is quite similar to that of feeding judi- 
ciously 100 pounds of oil cake, and at the same time 
spreading 100 pounds more over the manure pile for its 
enrichment. An economical consideration of meat and 
manure production would seem to require that the feeding 
ration should be, at least, approximately adjusted to the 
needs and capacity of the animal, and that the manure 
should he the excrementitious matters resulting from the 
most economical feeding. 

Science should teach the proportion of the various ingre- 
dients of food required for the most economical produc- 
tion of milk, meat and wool, and it is the value of the 
manure produced by such feeding that we are considering. 

The most valuable result in manure, under a rational 
system of feeding, will be produced at the point of the 
greatest proportional production from a given amount of 
food. A scanty ration which will be almost wholly used 
as the food of support, will seldom enter into a system of 
profitable feeding. 

There have been different estimates of the value of the 
manure resulting from the consumption of a given quan- 
tity of food by farm animals. That most industrious ex- 
perimenter, Sir J. B. Lawes, some years ago, laid down the 
figures of value in the following table : 

Showing the estimated value of the manure obtained on 
the consumption of one gross ton (2,240 lbs.) of different 
articles of food ; each supposed to be of good quality of 
its kind. 



80 



FEEDI]SrG ANIMALS. 



Dbsobiftion of Food. 


Estimated Mon- 
ey Value of the 
Manure from 
one gross ton 
of each Food. 


Value of net 
ton. 2,000 
lbs., in our 
Currency. 


1. Decorticated cotton-seed cake 


£ 
6 
4 
4 
4 
3 
3 
3 
3 
3 

2 
1 










B. 

10 

18 

12 

5 

17 

13 

13 

13 

2 

2 

14 

13 

11 

11 

9 

5 

10 

13 

12 

10 

7 

5 

4 

4 

4 


d. 






6 
6 
6 
6 
6 

6 
6 
6 


6 
6 
6 


3 




$ c. 
27.67 


2. Rape cake , 


21.52 


3. Linseed cake 


19.54 


4. Maltdust (sprouts).. 


18.22 


5. Lentils 


16.44 


6. Linseed . ... , 


15.65 
15.76 


8. Beans 


15.76 


9. Peas 


13.35 


10. Locust beans 


4.83 


11. Oats 


7.40 


12. Wheat 


7.08 




6.76 


14. Malt 

15. Barley 


6.71 
6.27 




9.65 




6.43 


18. Oat straw , 


2,90 




2.68 




2.26 


21. Potatoes 


1.51 




1.08 


23. Swedish turnips , 

24. Common turnips 

25. Carrots 


.91 
.86 

.86 







Even English farmers, who have heretofore vahiecl ma- 
nure much higher than American farmers, have often 
mentioned Dr. Lawes' table as placing too high an estimate 
upon the manurial value of food, because, as they said, the 
same elements could be more cheaply purchased in com- 
mercial fertilizers. But it may be doubted if this is true 
of the present market value of the three elements, nitrogen, 
potash and phosphoric acid. We therefore give another 
table showing the amount of each of these elements in 
1,000 pounds of the diflFerent foods, and then calculating 
the value of one ton at the prices mentioned at the head of 
the columns. These prices are 18 cents for nitrogen, 6 
cents for potash and 10 cents for phosphoric acid. These 
are considerably lower than the prices estimated in com- 
mercial fertilizers. We give this here as a convenient table 
for reference ; 



VALUE OF MANURE. 

MANUFACTURED PRODUCTS AND REFUSE. 



81 



Substances. 



Cotton-seed cake (decorticated) . . 
Cotton-seed ciike (undecorticated) 

K;ipe cake 

Linseed cake 

Palmnut cake 

Linseed meal (extracted) 

Poppy-seed cake . . . 

Hemp-seed cake 

Walnnt cake 

Sunflower-seed cake 

Malt sprouts 

Wheat bran 

Kye bran 

Kye flour 

Jlillet meal 

Sngar-beet cake 

Buckwheat bran 



lbs. 

900 

885 
900 
880 
930 
903 
885 
901 
863 
897 
905 
865 
875 
858 
860 
308 



18 cts. 

lbs. 

62.0 
39.0 
48.0 
45.0 
25.0 
59 8 
47.8 
44.7 
52.2 
55.9 
38.0 
22.0 
23.2 
16.8 
18.3 
18.0 
27.3 



6cte. 

lbs. 

21.0 

20.1 

13.2 

14.7 

5.5 

17.0 

22.0 

27.6 

17 7 

26.8 

19.5 

14. S 

19.3 

6.5 

2.3 

3.6 

10.0 






10 Ct8. 

lbs. 

29.5 
22.9 
24.6 
19.6 
12.2 
25.6 
40.0 
37.6 
23.4 
35.4 
17.2 
32.3 
34.2 
8.5 
5.5 
1.0 
17.0 



GRAINS AND SEEDS. 



Beans 

Peas 

Rye 

Oats 

Wheat 

Barley 

Maize 

Millet, with husk ... 
Millet, without husk 

Buckwheat 

Sorghum 

Flaxseed 

Vetches 

Hemp seed 

Rape seed 

Poppy seed 



855 


41.0 


12.0 


11.6 


857 


36.0 


9.8 


8.8 


851 


17.6 


5.4 


8.2 


870 


20.6 


4.5 


6.2 


856 


18.8 


5.4 


8.0 


860 


17.0 


4.9 


7.3 


886 


16.6 


3.6 


6.1 


870 


23.2 


4.7 


9.1 


869 


20.0 


2.3 


6.6 


860 


14.4 


2.1 


4.4 


860 


16.0 


4.2 


8.1 


905 


36.0 


12.3 


15.4 


864 


44.0 


6.3 


7.9 


878 


26.0 


9.7 


17.5 


890 


31.0 


8.8 


16.4 


853 


28.0 


7.1 


16.4 



ATeadow hay 

Timothy 

Dead ripe hay 

Red clover, in blossom 

J!e(l clover, ripe 

White clover 

Lucern or alfalfa 

Green vetches 

Green oats 

Green peas 



857 


15.5 


16.8 


3.8 


856 


15.5 


17.2 


6.8 


856 


12.0 


5.0 


2.9 


840 


19.7 


19.5 


5.6 


840 


15.0 


12.2 


3.5 


840 


23.8 


10.6 


8.5 


840 


23.0 


15.2 


5.1 


840 


22.7 


30.9 


9.4 


855 


14.7 


24.1 


5.1 


833 


22.8 


29.6 


9.7 



82 



FEEDING ANIMALS 

GREEN FODDER. 



Substances. 



Meadow grass, in blossom 

Young grass 

Timothy 

Oats, coming into head... 

Oats, in blossom 

Rye, in blossom 

Hungarian millet 

Red clover 

White clover 

Swedish clover... 

Lucern— alfalfa 

Green vetches 

Green peas 

Green rape 



lbs. 

300 
200 
300 
180 
2;30 
300 
320 
200 
190 
185 
247 
180 
185 
150 



ie( eta. 

lbs. 

4.8 
5.6 
5.4 
3.6 
3.0 
5.3 
5.3 
5.2 
5 
5.2 
7.0 
4.9 
5.1 
4.6 



6cfe. 

lbs. 

6.0 
11.6 
6.1 
7.1 
6.5 
6.3 
8.6 
4.6 
2.4 
3.5 
4.5 
6.6 
5.6 
4.4 



10 cts. 

lbs. 

1.5 
2.2 
2.3 
1.7 
1.4 
2,4 
1.3 
1.3 
S.O 
1.0 
1.5 
2.0 
1.8 
1.2 



$2.24 
2.01 
1.94 
1.94 
1.61 
2.51 
2.54 
2.27 
2.15 
3.18 
2.94 
2.35 
2.34 
2.03 



STRAWS AND ROOTS. 



Bean straw.. 
Wheat straw 
Barley straw 
Oat straw . . 

Potatoes 

Mangolds . . . 
Swedes .. .. 

Carrots 

Turnips 



840 


10.0 


25.9 


4.1 


857 


4.8 


5.8 


2.6 


850 


5.0 


9.7 


2.0 


830 


5.0 


10.4 


3.5 


250 


3.4 


5.6 


1.8 


115 


1.9 


3.9 


0.7 


107 


2.4 


2.0 


0.6 


142 


1.6 


3.2 


1.0 


83 


1.8 


2.9 


0.6 



7.52 
2.94 
3.36 
3.54 
2.55 
1.39 
1.22 
1.16 
1.11 



The foregoing table of different fodders and their vahie 
as manure, after passing through the stomachs of animals, 
will present, at a glance, the importance of carefully hus- 
banding the manure made upon the farm. It shows that 
when the three important elements in farm manure are 
estimated at even lower prices than is given for commercial 
fertilizers, the value of the manure from one ton of any 
given food is greater than the estimate made by Dr. Lawes, 
and which has been considered by English farmers as too 
high. This estimate will only hold good when the manure, 
liquid and solid, is completely saved. And we do not give 



VALUE OF MANURE. 83 

this table as fixing the absolute value of the manure from 
these feeding stuffs, as the quality of foods differs under 
varying circumstances ; but we do believe that these values 
are quite as reliable as those given for commercial fertilizers. 
We shall have frequent occasion to refer to this table. 



84 JFEEDLNG ANIMALS. 



CHAPTER IV. 

STOCK BARNS. 

One of the most important questions relating to a sys- 
tem of economical meat, milk and wool production is that 
of the best construction of barns for the various kinds of 
farm animals. Even in the comparatively mild climate of 
England, the best feeders have found it a great economy 
to provide a warm shelter in winter. Many experiments 
have been there tried upon cattle and sheep. But sheep 
are usually supposed to be the best provided by Nature 
with protection against cold ; yet Mr. Nesbit relates a case^ 
coming under his observation, where a farmer in Dorset- 
shire placed 30 sheep under a warm shed, and a like num- 
ber of sheep, of the same weight and condition, were fed 
m the open field, without shelter of any kind. Each lot 
was fed with turnips, ad UMtum, and coarse fodder. This 
continued through the cold season, and the result proved 
that those without shelter gained one pound per head each 
week, whilst those under shelter, although they ate less 
food, increased three pounds per head per week. 

It must be admitted that the large amount of water 
in turnips would cause this diet to show most unfavorably 
in the open air, giving a greater contrast than a diet of 
dry food. But that most experienced cattle and sheep 
feeder, Mechi, has given very strong testimony in favor of 
shelter for all farm animals. In the case of the cow, all 
dairymen have noted the immediate eflfect of cold upon the 
secretion of milk. A sudden change to a lower tempera- 



STOCK BARNS. 85 

ture, or a rain-storm, will often reduce the yield of milk 
25 to 40 per cent, in a few days. If we had as complete a 
test in the case of fattening cattle, we should probably find 
the difference in gain quite as great. Mr. Charles Eaton, 
who managed a large number of cattle on the great Alex- 
ander farm, in Champaign County, 111., one cold winter, 
found that all the corn which steers could eat (about 40 
lbs. per day) in the open air, only sufficed to keep them 
from losing weight. 

While in some of the feeding districts in the West, land 
and corn are sometimes so cheap that many good farmers 
think they can better afford the corn than the shelter ; but 
this period will soon end. As land becomes more yaluable 
they will find it quite too unremunerative to expend a large 
amount of corn in keeping cattle, with very little gain in 
weight, during the winter season. It is not wholly the 
loss of food that should be considered, but the postpone- 
ment of ripe market condition, and the fact that when cat- 
tle are at a stand-still they are taking on an unthrifty 
habit, which prevents them, for a time, from rapid gain on 
the best grass in spring. And there can be no doubt that, 
when the exact saving by warm shelter shall be determined 
by an accurate comparison between out-door and in-door 
winter-feeding, it will show a large economy in favor of 
building the best cattle-barns and feeding in a uniform 
temperature. 

The few comparative tests that have been made in the 
West between open air and barn-feeding, which have 
seemed to show very little gain from the warm temperature 
of the barn, have ignored the effect of restraint upon wild 
animals. The animals used for these tests had never been 
handled or subjected to restraint until placed in stable. 
This confinement and sudden change of habit produced 
such nervous irritation as to nearly balance the beneficial 
effect of a warmer temperature. A convincing test must 



86 FEEDING ANIMALS. 

take animals handled from calfhood and used to the re- 
straint of a stable in winter. Such animals, compared with 
animals reared and constantly fed in the open air, will show 
a difference in amount of food and gain that all intelli- 
gent feeders will be inclined to heed. 

Barns may be built on a large scale, and fully equipped 
for the best system of feeding, at ten to twenty dollars per 
head of cattle they will accommodate. Now, let us sup- 
pose that a steer, weighing 1,000 lbs. on the first day of 
November, will gain 150 to 200 lbs. more, on the same 
food, in a warm stable, than in the open air, during the 
five cold months of winter, and this 200 lbs. gain will ren- 
der the whole carcass worth from M to 1 cent more per 
pound, and the whole gain could not be less than 112 to 
$15 per head, which would, in many cases, pay the whole 
cost of the barn. A strict comparison between summer 
and winter feeding, in the open air, will show a greater 
difference than this, and when we perfect the system of 
barn feeding, we shall be able to make as great progress in 
winter as in summer feeding. We know there are other 
considerations besides the cost of barns to be taken into 
account, and the chief of these is the labor required to feed 
animals in barn over those in the field, but we shall con- 
sider all these and be able to show that there is a large 
balance in favor of the best system of barn feeding. 

Form of Barn. 

Economy and convenience of space — that form and ar- 
rangement requiring the least amount of labor to feed and 
care for a given number of animals — durability as well as 
economy in the cost of the structure, are the most impor- 
tant requisites in barn building. The early forms of 
American barns were devised when everything was done 
by hand, and they were built low to accommodate hand- 
pitching ; were filled with interior beams and posts, which 



FORM OF BARlf. 87 

much obstructed the pitching in and out of hay and grain, 
and, being so low, were expensive in so much roof and 
foundation for so small an amount of cubic feet of space. 
A large barn was built in the form of a long paralellogram, 
with 16-feet outside posts, so that, when a stable was made 
in the first story, it left only a low scaffold over it for the 
storage of fodder ; and, when the stable was in the base- 
ment, the 16-feet posts furnished a small amount of room 
for the storage of hay, considering the size of the barn. 
A drive-way through such a long barn leaves but narrow 
space on each side, and it takes up too large a proportion 
of the room. Later thought has substituted 24-feet posts 
instead of 16 feet, and this nearly doubles the capacity for 
storage, with slight addition to the. cost of the barn. A 
mow 24 feet high will settle so much solider than a 16-feet 
mow, that its capacity is fully 80 per cent, greater, whilst 
the cost of the barn is only the cost of 8 feet longer 
posts and boards — a mere trifle. And as the present system 
of handling hay and grain with the horse-fork enables the 
farmer to fill a mow of any height with equal facility, all 
barns should be built with 24 or more feet posts. The 
writer finds 28-feet posts none too high for convenience, 
and furnishing so much extra room for a great variety of 
uses, that he is led to strongly recommend the building of 
high barns. A man who builds such a barn will be likely 
to do his work more thoroughly, his roof and foundation 
costing no more than for a low barn. 

The sqiiare is a convenient and comparatively economical 
form of barn ; but this form cannot be used for one of 
much size, because of the difficulty and expense in getting 
long timber, and the difficulty of sustaining the roof, with- 
out interior posts and beams, when the side is over 50 feet. 
The use of the horse-fork is much more convenient where 
the interior space is unobstructed by posts or beams above 
the floor-beams, for, in that case, the grapple on the traverse 



88 PEEDIISTG ANIMALS. 

end of tlie pitching rope may be moved in any direction, 
and the forkful dropped at any spot desired. This arrange- 
ment requires very little mowing away, and thus saves a 
large amount of labor. The high barn gives plenty of 
room for the swing of the fork, and all the railway tracks, 
contrived to run over purlines, become useless. 

The OcTAGoif. 

In doing work in barn, concentration is an important 
point. The shorter the lines of travel, the easier the work 
is done ; therefore, barns that are square or circular have 
shorter lines of travel than the oblong form, and the cir- 
cular or octagonal form can be built with comparatively 
short timber, besides affording every facility for a self- 
supporting roof, or a roof resting simply upon the plates 
or outside rim — and, thus constructed, the interior space of 
the barn is entirely free of posts and beams, except the 
floor-beams, upon which to rest the scaffold to utilize the 
space over the floor. And a barn of this shape, with a 
floor through the center, has every line of travel equi- 
distant from the center, and one floor accommodates all 
parts of the barn alike. Besides, the octagonal form admits 
of building any sized barn, up to 90 feet diameter, without 
any timber more than 39 feet long. A 90-foot octagon has 
a circumference or outside wall of 298)'^ feet, and each side 
is only 37 feet 3K inches long. This barn will comfortably 
stable 114 head 'of cattle in its basement, and contains, 
with 25-feet posts (besides a 14-feet floor through the second 
story) 151,395 cubic feet of space for storing crops. It 
would store 250 tons of hay, and 5,000 bushels of grain in 
tlie straw. It would require an oblong barn 40 by 180 feet 
long, with same height of posts, to have the same capacity 
for stabling cattle and room for crops. This long barn 
would have a circumference of 440 feet, or an outside wall 



THE OCTAGOKAL BARN". 89 

142 feet longer than the octagon. This 142 feet of wall, 
running through both stories, would require 3,550 square 
feet of siding above the basement, and about 1,300 cubic 
feet of basement wall more than the octagon. The latter 
form would also save a large amount of interior timbers. 

If it is desired to build a larger circular barn than 90 
feet diameter, it would be advisable to build a duo-decagon 
(12-sided) or a sex-decagon (16-sided) barn. These forms 
are just as easily constructed, and, where the diameter is 
large, dividing the circumference into 16 sides makes the 
timber for each side short, and it only requires 16 outside 
posts — one at each corner. If the diameter is 110 feet, 
each side will be about 22 feet on a sixteen-sided barn. It 
is sufficient to extend girths from corner-post to corner- 
post, and side it up and down. The basement of this latter 
barn would accommodate 150 head of large cattle, and 
contain 242,000 cubic feet of space in the second story. 
This would hold 500 tons of hay, or 300 tons of hay and 
8,000 bushels of grain in the straw. This form of barn 
has a remarkable capacity for its circumference. It has 
nearly 100 feet less outside wall than the barn 40 by 180 
feet long, yet has a capacity for storage hearly double ; but 
this latter barn would take more lumber to build than the 
large sixteen-sided barn. The circle incloses the largest 
area, for its circumference or outside wall, of any form ; but 
the true circle is too expensive to build, and the octagon 
approaches the circle in economy of outside wall, and is- as 
easily built as the square. The octagonal or 16-sided 
form is much less affected by the wind, and may be built 
higher than the long barn in windy situations. 

This matter of barn building is of so much importance 
to the improved system of stock feeding, that we shall 
discuss it as suited to small and large operations, and 
propose to show how 1,000 or more head may be fed 
economically and safely under one roof. 



90 



FEEDING ANIMALS. 



We give in fig. 5 the elevation of an octagonal barn of 80 
feet diameter, built by the author in 1875, inclosing 5,304 
square feet, having posts 28 feet long— with a capacity to 
the top plates, in the story above the basement, of 148,514 
cubic feet. This octagon has an outside wall of 2653^ feet 
and was built to replace four barns destroyed, having an 
aggregate outside wall of 716 feet, and yet this barn has 
about 25 per cent, greater capacity than all four barns lost, 
showing the great economy of this form in expense of wall 
and siding. 




Fig. 5.— OCTAGON BARN (NORTH ELEVATION). 

Explanation.— p, plate ; r, tie-rod and bridging between rafters ; s, purlin rim ; 
t, liip rafters. 



THE OCTAGONAL BAEN". 



91 



If we compare it with an oblong barn 50 x 108 feet, the 
latter will inclose the same number of square feet, and 
have the same capacity at the same height, but requires 51 
feet more outside wall. 

It is easy to make the roof of the octagon self-support- 
ing, as it is in the form of a truss. The plates perform the 
office of the bottom chord, and the hip rafters of the top 
chord, in a truss. The strain on the plates is an endwise 




To 



I y\y\y\y'\y\j'\yu\j'\^\y\^\j-\^\^\j-\^\y\j'\y {_ 



y\y\j-\j-\f\r\j-\j-\j-\s\j'\j'\j-\^\j-\j'\j'\j'\r\j' 




Fig. 8.— OCTAGON basement (north side). 

Explanation.— a h c d, doors of basement ; e, drive-way through the center ; n c, 
south drive-way for cart to carry out manure : o d, north drive-way ; m, spare room 
for root cellar or any other purpose ; 1 1, lying-in stall for cows •. k k k k /c k, horse 
mansers; Jjjjjj, horse stalls; //, forty cow stalls or stanchions — there should be 
no separation between these spaces and h ; g g. cow mangers ; h h, an open grated 
platform for cows to stand on, the manure falling through upon a concrete floor 
below. 



92 FEEDING ANIMALS. 

pull, the bottom of the roof cannot spread, and the rafters 
being properly bridged from the middle to the top, cannot 
crush, and the whole must remain rigidly in place. Its 
external form being that of an octagonal cone, each side 
bears equally upon every other^ side, and it has great 
strength without any cross-ties or beams, requiring no 
more material or labor than the ordinary roof. The plates 
are halved together at the corners, and the lips bolted 
together with four half-inch iron bolts (see fig. 6) ; a brace 
8x8 inches is fitted across the inside angle of the plate 
corner, with a three-fourths-inch iron bolt through each 
toe of the brace and through the plate, with an iron strap 
along the face of the brace, taking each bolt, the nut turn- 
ing down upon this iron strap (see fig. 7). Now the hip 
rafter (/), 6x12 inches, is cut into the corner of the plate, 
with a shoulder striking this cross brace, the hip rafter 
being bolted (with three-fourths-inch iron bolt) through 
the plate into the corner post (see fig. 6). Thus the plate 
corner is made as strong as any other part of the stick. 
There is a purlin rim (see fig. 5, s) of 8 x 10 inch timber, 
put together like the plate-rim, bolted or fastened with an 
iron stirrup under the middle of the hip rafters, which 
plate-rim supports the intermediate rafters. The hips may 
be tied to the intermediate rafters by long rods half way 
between the plate and the purlin, if deemed necessary from 
the size of the roof (r). The north section of the roof 
(fig. 5) is represented as uncovered, showing the plate (;j), 
purlin (s), tie-rod (r) and bridging between plate aud pur- 
lin and the two sets of bridging above purlin, etc. It v/ill 
be noted that, in this form of roof, the roof-boards act as a 
powerful tie to hold it all together, each nail holding to the 
extent of its strength, thus supplementing the strength of 
the plate-rim or bottom chord. 

It will be seen by fig. 5 that there is a drive-way, fifteen 
feet wide, through the center of the principal story from 



THE BASEMEIfT. 93 

north to south. There is a line of "big beams" on either 
side of this drive-way, 13 feet high, across which a scaiiold 
may be thrown to enable ns to occupy the high space over 
this floor. The posts being 28 feet high and roof rising 
22/3 feet, the cupola floor is 50 feet above the drive-way 
floor below. The space above these ''big beams" is quite 
clear of any obstruction, and a horse pitching-fork may be 
run at pleasure to any part. The bay for hay on the left 
side of this floor is 80 feet long, and has an area of 2,051 
square feet, and is capable of holding, when filled to the 
roof and over the floor, 200 tons of hay. This bay, extend- 
ing along the floor 80 feet, may be divided into as many 
parts as required for different qualities of hay, and each 
part be quite convenient for filling and taking out. 

On the right-hand side of the floor is a scaffold, eight 
feet high, having the same area (2,051 square feet) for car- 
riages, farm tools and machines below, and above the 
scaffold is — a height of ISJ-j feet to top of the plates — a large 
space for grain, aff'ording ample room for the separate stor- 
age of each kind to the aggregate of 3,000 bushels or more. 
It will be seen that the large space in this barn is all 
reached and filled from one floor, saving much labor in 
changing from one floor to another. 

The Basement. 

Fig. 8 shows the basement as we use it, yet there are 
a any different ways in which it may be divided for stock 
and other purposes. We build the basement wall of con- 
crete. It is not only the warmest and best wall for basement 
stables, but is much cheaper than the stone wall laid by a 
mason, the concrete requiring no skilled labor, only such 
skill as is required to mix mortar and tend a mason. 

The drive-way through the basement is from west to 
east, being the feeding floor between two rows of cattle, 
with heads turned toward the floor. The floor is fourteen 



94 FEEDING AKIMALS. 

and a half feet wide, out of which come two rows of 
mangers two and a half feet wide, leaving a space of ten 
feet for driving a wagon through or running a car carrying 
food for the cattle. There are places for twenty cows or 
other cattle on each side, leaving a space of sixteen feet at 
the west end to drive a cart around behind the cattle on 
either side to carry away the manure and pass out at a side 
stable door, eight feet wide. The horse stalls are arranged 
on the south side, but may be placed on either of several 
other sides, or on all. By placing tails to wall and heads 
on an inner circle, drawn twelve feet from the wall, with 
feed-box room three feet wide for each horse, with ample 
room at the rear, sixteen horse stalls may be arranged on 
southwest, south and southeast sides. But for 200-acre 
farms generally, no more than forty head of cattle and six 
horses would be kept, and for such our ground plan would 
be most convenient, because it furnishes easy access with a 
cart, both for supplying fodder and carrying _away the 
manure. On our plan, we have much space on the north, 
northwest and northeast sides, which may be used for 
various purposes, such as root cellar, sheep-fold for fifty 
sheep, or for stowing away tools, working-wagons and 
implements. 

It will be seen that the basement is not sunk in the 
earth, but on the north and south sides it is graded up to 
the floor of the second story, so as to make an easy drive- 
way into the barn. The base line, as represented on the 
drawing, is four feet below the general level of the land on 
the north side, but there is an open channel of water, into 
which every part is drained, on the south side. The earth 
on the east and west sides is scraped up on the north and 
south sides to grade up the drive-ways into second story. 
This basement is lighted by six windows of twenty lights, 
8 X 12 glass, and six of ten lights each. 



CIRCULAR BASEMENT. 



DS 



Basement Laid out on a Circle. 

We give, in fig. 9, a representation of an octagonal base- 
ment, laid out, in the interior, on a circle, containing fifty- 
two stalls for cows or cattle, with heads towards the interior. 
For a fancy breeding establishment these stalls might be 
elevated one or more feet, showing all the animals at one 
view, and with the feeding car on track (c), and the car for 
running out manure on track (a), the labor would be 




Fig. 9. — OCTAGON BASEMENT. 

Explanation.— This represents an 80-foot octagon basement laid ont on a circle ; 
6 b represents 52 cow or cattle stalls, heads toward inner circle ; c represents a cir- 
cular track for a feeding car to run around in front of the cows or cattle ; a, circular 
track for a manure car to carry off offal ; d represents one method of placing horse 
stalls convenient to drive-way ; e, vacant space to be used for any purpose ; //, 
drive-way. 



96 FEEDING AKIMALS. 

made convenient. This leaves a 52-foot interior circle 
which may be put to any purpose required. The track (c) 
takes out six feet, still leaving a circle of forty-six feet 
diameter. The horse stalls (d) are laid out partly on a 
circle, but are placed at right angles with the drive-way. 
One strong point to be made in favor of the circular plan 
is, that by means of the cars running across the drive-way, 
food dropped through the floor above upon the car can be 
run to every animal in the basement. The horse stalls 
would also be very convenient of access from the drive-way. 
One side of the drive-way might be fitted up with box 
stalls for brood mares or colts, or calf-pens. "We give this 
plan merely as suggestive, and not as the best arrangement. 
Every one may divide the space as he sees fit. Of course, 
it will be more expensive to fit up on a circle, but to one 
who fancied it, a few dollars would be, perhaps, no objec- 
tion. This plan has been adopted, since we devised it, by 
some fancy breeders, as affording the best arrangement 
for showing many animals and for convenient display at 
sales. 

The plan of basement given in fig. 8 would, generally, be 
preferred, and if wanted for a large dairy barn there is 
room for two parallel floors with two rows of cows to each 
floor, giving one long and one short row of cows to each 
floor, afibrding amjDle room to drive a cart behind each row 
of cows to take away the manure. One drive-way would 
answer for both inside rows of cows; also leaving room for 
a narrow calf-peh on the outside wall behind each outside 
row of cows. This would be occupying the basement to 
its full capacity, but, usually, on a 250-acre farm, which 
this size of octagon would accommodate, not _ more than 
fifty head of cattle and horses are kept, and our first plan 
of basement would be the most convenient, leaving ample 
space for a great variety of uses. 



STABLES. 97 

Selp-cleakin'g Stable. 

In the basement, fig. 8, the platforms n n, and the stalls 
marked //, are made self-cleaning ; and fig. 10 shows how 
this is accomplished. 

All dairymen and cattle feeders have felt the necessity of 
some device that' should lessen the daily labor of cleaning 
the stable, and especially that should succeed in really 
keeping the cow clean — a most necessary requisite to clean 
and wholesome milk. There have been various plans of 
using a gutter behind cows or other cattle ; but in all of 
them the cow was liable to get soiled upon the flank, and 
the tail could fall into the gutter and render the milking 
most oflFensive. If, therefore, a platform can be made 
which requires nothing to -aid it in keeping the cow 
clean, provides for her comfort, is self-acting, durable and 
cheap, there would seem to be little left to accomplish in 
this matter. 

The platform (fig. 10), invented by the author, does all 
this, and has been in use in his stable for the last five years. 
It occupies both platforms in the octagonal basement, 
represented by fig. 8. The platform consists partly of 
wood and partly of iron. The wooden part is situated 
next the manger (marked 6), 3 feet 6 inches wide, and 
raised 12 inches. Behind this an iron grating, resting on 
an angle-iron sill (marked 3), supported on stone posts at 
the back side and on the wooden platform in front, 4 feet 
wide. The gutter under this iron platform is 4 feet wide 
and 18 inches deep and concreted water tight, with a space 
of 10 inches under the angle-iron sill, through which the 
manure is removed. This gutter practically holds the 
droppings of cows for three weeks, except when muck is 
used to deodorize it, when it is filled in two weeks. The 
depth of this gutter is quite sufficient to hold all the 
liquid. 



98 



FEEDING ANIMALS. 




SELF-CLEANING STABLE, 



99 



The construction of the grating will easily be understood. 
Iron joists, K by 2 inches (marked 5), set edgewise, reaching 
from angle-iron sill to wooden platform, placed 18K inches 
apart. Across these, at right angles,~'are laid wrought-iron 
bars (marked 4), % by IK inches, fastened to the joists by 
quarter-inch round iron staples striding the joists and 
coming up through the flat bar and riveted. These flat 
bars, on which the cattle stand, are placed Ifs inches apart, 
twelve of them in number for this width of platform, with 
a plank some 10 inches wide covering the angle-iron. 

It will be seen that the cow must stand with the fore-feet 
upon the plank platform, and hind-feet upon the flat iron 
bars of the grating. The droppings fall directly through 
the openings into the gutter below when the manure is 
thin; and in winter, when dry food is given, the droppings 
are pressed through by the movements of the hind-feet. 
The cow stands across the bars, and always has two bars 
to stand upon, some large cattle's feet reaching the third 
bar. Cows that have stood upon this platform for five years 
have always remained clean, healthy and comfortable. The 
circulation of air under the platform appears to prevent 
diseases of the feet. 




Firj. 11. 



This platform, above described, was the first one put 
into use. It was stationary. The next improvement was 
to put it on hinges, doing away with the stone posts, and 
substituting short angle-iron posts instead, as represented 



100 



FEEDI]SrG ANIMALS. 



in figs. 11 and 12. This form was put into the stables 
of Burrill & Whitman, at Little Falls, N. Y. Fig. 12 
should represent the hind-feet of the cow as standing near 
the middle of the grating, instead of the edge, as the tread 
of the hind-feet is required to press the solid droppings 
through in winter. Fig. 11 explains itself, except that it 
may be well to mention that the hinges are made by drill- 
ing a hole near the ends of the iron joists, and then using 
a wood-screw eye-bolt to attach the grating to the wooden 
platform. These gratings are made in sections for two or 
three cows each. One man can turn them up on the 
hinges, leaving the manure in the pit below uncovered, and 
easily shoveled into a wagon to be taken to the field. 
These sections are jolaced end to end, and the bars are level 
and continuous, so that they may be brushed off with a 
stiff broom as fast as a man can walk. 




Fig. U 



The next style of this grating is represented by fig. 13, 
which explains its own construction. The change consists 
in omitting the legs and angle-iron sill in the rear, and 
carrying up the wall, on the rear side of the gutter, to 
a level with the under side of the grating, and allowing 
the back side of the grating to rest upon a thin timber on 
the top of the wall. 



SELF-CLEANING STABLE, 



101 



This last style of grating was put into the stable of E. 
T. Hayden, of Syracuse, N. Y., and gives him much satis- 
faction. The advantage of this style is that the gutter is 
water-tight to the top, and the grating is lighter and 
cheaper for the absence of the angle-iron sill and legs. 
This has been tested in so many stables that it may be con- 
sidered as eminently successful. 




Fig. 13. 

Explanation.—^, iron anchor; B, grated floor; C, coacrete; B, manger; 
E, sill. 

It will be seen that this plan of stable completely saves 
all the liquid and solid manure — a matter of the highest 
importance. In handling this manure it is carried directly 
from the stable to the field, and thus prevents any loss by 
leaching and evaporation in yard. The writer has found, 
by practical figures, that the saving in manure, by this gut- 
ter-system, and direct application to the field, amounts to 
five dollars per cow per year. 

In order to still further reduce the labor of handling 
the manure, and to make a more perfect distribution of it 
over the field, the v/riter employs the manure spreader ; 
and the labor is now so remarkably economized, that the 
only manual labor relating to the manure, now performed, 
consists in shoveling it from the gutters into the manure- 
spreader — no cleaning of stable; no handling of manure, 
except in loading it ; and the distribution is more complete 
than can be done by hand-spreading. 



102 FEEDING ANIMALS. 

This iron grating must be credited also with : 1st, pre- 
venting all rotting of the wood-work of the stables, as all 
urine passes at once through the bars, and cannot wet the 
joists and sills of the barn. 2d. It^s durability must be very . 
great, or that of a dozen wooden stables. 3d. Its cost is very 
moderate — the latter form- costing only $6 per cow. 

Dry earth or muck should be kept in the basement near 
this platform, and a little thrown each day on the grating, 
falling through upon the manure, and thus preventing all 
smell and fixing the ammonia, rendering manure and dry 
muck equally valuable. Any dry earth, such as cleaning 
of ditches or headlands, will answer every purpose, when 
dry and pulverized. This will double the amount of 
manure, and all be more valuable than manure kept in the 
common way. 

Fig. 10 also illustrates a new mode of fastening and 
watering cattle in stable, which will be explained in a 
future chapter. 

The Octagon" Adapted to all Sized Faems. 

A little examination of this form of barn will not only 
show its adaptation to large farms, but to farms of all 
sizes — from the smallest to the largest. A farmer has but 
to calculate how much room he wants for cattle, how 
much for horses, how much for sheep, how much for 
hay and grain, how much for carriages, wagons, tools, or 
any other purposej and he can inclose just the number of 
square feet needed, and with the shortest outside wall. He 
may be liberal in his allowance of room, for it costs less, in 
proportion, as the size is increased. Suppose he requires 
for a fifty-acre farm 2,090 square feet of room; this would 
require a fifty-foot octagon or a 40 x 52 rectangle. Now he 
would require timber forty feet long for the latter, while he 
could build the octagon with timber for the sills and plates 
only twenty-two feet long, and this would be the longest 



THE SMALL OCTAGON". 103 

timber, except posts, which would be better twenty-four or 
twenty-five feet long. Each side would be only 20% feet, 
and the wall for the basement 165 feet long, whilst the 
other would be 184 feet long, saving 19 feet of wall and 
siding by the octagon, requiring but eight corner posts, 
and no intermediates, as the girths would be less than 
twenty feet long. He would require no interior posts or 
beams, except those for scaflFolds. All the ordinary purlin 
posts and beams would be saved, and the labor on them. 
It is easy, also, to see that a few feet added to each side 
would furnish room for another fifty acres, and so on to 
any size desired. This form of building, properly under- 
stood, would lead farmers to abandon the building of a 
separate barn for each specific purpose, and to provide for 
all their necessities under one roof. If several barns are 
placed so as to be convenient, the danger, in case of a fire, 
is about the same as in one barn, for all would burn in 
either case. 

A Fifty-foot Octagon. 

To instance a size of barn, ample for a fertile farm of 50 
acres, to accommodate crops, tools and stock, Ave select the 
octagon of 50 feet diameter. This requires a basement 8 
feet in the clear, in which all the stock on the farm will be 
kept ; with a drive-way through the basement 12 feet wide, 
fifteen cows or cattle could stand on each side with their 
heads to the drive-way or feeding-floor, and, using 2 feet on 
each side of this floor for a manger, would leave a track for 
ca-rt or wagon of 8 feet. Behind each row of cattle would 
be room for 4 horse stalls of good width ; but as such a farm 
would not be likely to have use for more than 4 horse 
stalls, the space on the other side would be used for lying- 
in stalls for cows and calf-pens, etc. Here is abundance of 
room for all the stock 50 to 75 acres can keep, and eyery- 
thing is under one roof. 



104 FEEDIN"G ANIMALS. 

Let us now look at the main building above the base- 
ment. Posts are 24 feet long ; and as many small farmers 
may wish to look at the cost of this barn in detail, we will 
give specifications of materials and cost, at the present low 
figures, which may be raised of lowered according to 
locality : 

SCHEDUXiE. 

Feet. 

8 sills, 8 X 10— 22 feet 1,176 

4 cross-sills, 8 X 10 — 26 feet, spliced 692 

8 corner posts, 8 X 10— 24 feet 1,280 

8 plates, 8 X 10, 23 feet 1,176 

4 floor beams, 8 X 10—26 feet, spliced 692 

4 door posts, 6 X 8—13 feet 208 

4 posts, under floor-beams, 8 X 10 — 13 feet 346 

2 scaffold beams, 8 X 19 — 26 feet, spliced (these go under 

one floor-beam, 8 feet above the floor) 346 

34 girth.-i, 4 X 5 — 20 feet (5 tiers on six sides and 3 over 

each door 1,133 

3 girths, 4 X 8—20 feet, over doors 106 

8 hip-rafters, 5 X 10— 34 feet 1,134 

8 middle rafters, 3 X 8—32 feet 513 

16 intermediate, 3 X 6—26 feet 624 

16 intermediate, 3 X 6—20 feet 480 

16 intermediate, 2 X 6—14 feet 234 

16 intermediate, 2 X 6—9 feet 128 

24 joists, 3 X 10—14 feet (lower floor) 840 

34 joists, 3 X 10—17 feet (lower floor) 1,335 

17 joists, 3 X 8—17 feet (scaffold) 578 

Plank for barn floor, 12 X 50 feet (2-inch) 1,200 

Floor under scaffold, 1^ inches 1,125 

Floor under bay, 1 incli 750 

Floor under scaffold, 1 inch 750 

44 braces, 4 X6, 7 feet long 616 

Roof boards 3,100 

Total rough lumber 20,551 

Four thousand five hundred feet 6-inch, well-seasoned, 
dressed and matched pine, "one-fourth added — 5,650 feet — 
for siding and cornice. 

SUMMARY OF COST. 

Wall, 1,487 cubic feet (concrete) 10c. per cubic foot $147.70 

30,551 feet coarse lumber, $8 164.40 

5,5.50 feet pine siding, $17 96.00 

.500 lbs. nails, $3 15.00 . 

Sash and glass • • • 25.00 

Carpenter work and board 275.00 

Painting two coats (oxide of iron and oil) 25 . 00 

33 thousand shmgles 75.00 

Total cost $823.10 



PLACE FOR GRANARY. 105 

Let US now look at the capacity of this barn. The bay, 
inchiding half of the scaffold over the floor, will store 50 
tons of hay. The scaffold on the other side of the floor, 
having the same square feet as the bay, and a height of 15 
feet to the top of the plate, will hold 1,000 bushels of grain 
in the straw, or a like bulk of other fodder. 

The best place for the granary in this barn, or any 
other, is over the main floor, at one end. Let some strong 
joists be laid across the floor-beams, and a matched floor, 
14 feet long, and of the width of the floor to outside of 
beams, be laid on these joists. Fasten some standards on 
the outside of the floor-beams, two feet apart, reaching 
eight feet above this floor ; side these up on the inside with 
matched pine. Now divide the space between these two 
sides into three parts, by erecting standards for two parti- 
tions, eight feet high. These jiartitions will be four feet 
apart, and, when sided up with matched stuff, will give 
three divisions or bins, which, being 4x14x8 feet high, 
will hold 360 bushels each. If more bins are wanted, 
these can be divided in the middle, making six bins, 4x7 
X 8 feet high, holding 180 bushels each. These bins should 
all be floored over, with lids on top, through which the 
grain is emptied. Now make a draw in the bottom of each 
bin, so that the grain may be drawn down through a cloth 
spout into bags. The grain is easily elevated into these bins 
by horses, with the ordinary pitching rope and pulley; and 
the space occupied by this granary is not needed for other 
purposes. We have found this arrangement of grain bins to 
save much labor during the year. The space under the 
scaffold — 735 square feet — will give room for buggies, tools, 
etc. The floor over it being made dust-tight, it will be as 
clean as any barn built for the same purpose. Let the small 
farmer scan closely this form and size of barn, and see if 
he can get more conveniences for as much money. 



106 feeding animals. 

Basement Walls for Stables. 

The stable is, perhaps, the most important single feature 
about the barn, as upon the merits of this will largely 
depend the profits of feeding animals ; and as more crops 
are grown for feeding animals than for feeding man, every- 
thing in the construction of a stable bearing upon the com- 
fort and growth of animals should be carefully considered. 

The season of greatest growth in our domesticated ani- 
mals is when the temperature of the air is 60° and upwards. 
If, therefore, we would try to imitate Nature at its best, we 
must build our stables in which the winter temperature 
shall approximate 60°. This may be done by building our 
basement walls of material having very little conducting 
power. Double walls, having a space of dead air between 
them, effect this purpose the best ; but as such walls are 
most expensive, we may adopt a concrete wall, which has 
an infinite number of minute air spaces, rendering it com- 
paratively non-conducting. A thick stone wall, in which 
some stones reach across the wall, will be found covered 
with frost on the inside in winter, and often with moisture 
in summer. But the concrete wall is never penetrated with 
frost, and is never damp, when properly constructed. This 
wall has another important advantage besides its minimum 
of conducting power, rendering the stable cool in summer 
and warm in winter — it is the cheapest substantial wall 
where sand, gravel -and rough stone, or sand and gravel, or 
sand and rough stone, are not too far off. It can be built 
in most parts of the country at 10 cents per cubic foot of 
wall. And as this wall does not require to be as thick as 
an ordinary stone wall, because a water-lime concrete is much 
firmer and stronger than quick-lime, as used by masons, for 
every stone is bedded in water-lime cement, which soon bo- 
comes as hard as stone. The writer has a wall 8% feet 
high, under a large barn, which has stood the heaviest wind 



LAYING OUT OCTAGOlSrAL WALL. 107 

aud a great pressure, although it is only 15 inches thick at 
bottom and 12 inches at top. This is heavy enough for 
any-sized octagon, because in this form one side braces 
against every other side. In a concrete wall under a very 
long barn it would be proper to have a short pier built 
against the inside every 50 feet to prevent a side swaying 
in a strong wind. 

In building the concrete wall the service of a mason is 
quite unnecessary. You need only good, common laborers, 
one of whom is learned in mixing the materials in j)roper 
proportions. Anyone who is capable of tending a mason 
can mix the materials and superintend placing them in the 
boxes. 

Preparations for Laying Out the Wall. 

If there is moisture to come to the wall, water-lime must 
be used, and it is well to carry two or three feet above the 
ground with concrete. The place should also be excavated 
one or two feet beyond the proposed wall, so as to leave an 
air-space on the outside, giving the wall a chance to dry 
and become hard. If, in any case, you go into the slate 
rock, which is always full of seams charged with moisture, 
you must not allow the concrete to be built against this 
rock, for the moisture in the rock coming into the thin 
mortar will cause the milk of lime to run out and leave an 
infinite number of fine pores through which water will run ; 
but if no water is allowed to come to it while drying, it 
will be water and air-tight. It is also well to have a drain 
cut lower than the bottom of the wall, on the outside, to 
carry off any water that might otherwise come against it, 
which will render the basement dry. 

How to Lay Out an Octagonal Wall. 

The shape of this wall may give some trouble to get it 
so exact as to receive the lower rim of timber or sills. It 



108 FEEDING AKIMALS. 

should come even with the outside of the sills. The plan 
we adopt is so simple and easily carried out that it is here 
given as a guide. The foreman in building this form of a 
barn will always have a working plan. Let him get the 
exact measure from the center to one corner. Now let 
him make a measure of this exact length, with a three- 
eighths hole at one end — that is, from the center of this 
three-eighths hole to the other end should be the exact 
length from the center of the octagon to one corner. Now, 
having found the center of your proposed space to be 
walled in, drive a stake here firmly into the ground, saw it 
off four inches high, bore, and drive a three-eighths pin 
into the top of this stake, and place the hole bored in one 
end of the measure on this pin. Now bring the opposite 
end where you wish the first corner, and drive a jDeg at the 
end of the measure to make the first corner. Then take 
the pattern your carpenter has made for the sill (and he 
should always have an exact pattern, so that he may make 
no mistake) and put the outside corner on the center of 
this first peg, letting one man hold it while the measure is 
swung round to the other end of this sill pattern; and 
when the ends of the measure and pattern are brought 
together you have the second corner, at which you will 
drive another peg. Now move your sill pattern to the 
second peg, and carry your measure to the other end for 
the third corner, and so on till you come around to the 
first peg driven. If the work is well done you cannot 
avoid placing all your corners equi-distant from the center 
and in accurate octagonal form. 

OolfSTRUCTING THE BoXES FOR THE WaLL. 

Having determined the place and excavated for the wall, 
construct tlie boxes as follows : Take 3x4 scantling for 
the standards, a little longer than the wall is high, place 
these on each side of the proposed wall, as far apart as the 



BUILDIKG CONCBETE WALL. 109 

thickness of the wall and the thickness of the plank for 
the boxes. The plank should be 14 inches wide, IK inches 
thick, and of a length to accommodate the wall. If the 
wall is 32 feet long, then 16-feet plank will be the right 
length. If these standards are placed 15 inches apart, the 
plank inside the standards would leave 12 inches for the 
wall. These standards are held the proper distance at the 
bottom by nailing a thin piece of board across under the 
lower end, and fastening the tops with a cross-piece. The 
wall is built over these pieces at the bottom, and they are 
left in tlie wall. The standards are plumbed, and made fast 
by braces outside. Now, it will be seen that these planks 
can be moved upon the inside of the standards as fast as 
the wall goes up. The planks on the outside of the wall 
will, of course, be longer than those on the inside, by the 
thickness of the wall. The door frames and window 
frames will have jambs as wide as the wall is thick, and 
will make standards for that place. The door frames must 
be placed before the wall is begun. There will be a pair of 
standards at each end of the plank ; but the pair in the 
middle of the wall will hold the ends of both planks. To 
hold the planks from springing out between the standards, 
take a piece of narrow hard-wood board, two feet long, 
bore a two-inch hole at each end, having fifteen inches 
between them ; put a strong pin, two feet long, through 
these holes some ten inches. Now, these pins will just fit 
over the outside of the box-plank, and by putting a brace 
between the upper ends will hold them tight against the 
plank, preventing their springing out. Two of these 
clamps will be required for each set of planks 16 feet long. 
Now, when the box-planks are placed all around the wall, 
begin and fill in the concrete mortar and stone, as herein- 
after described ; and when you get round, if water-lime is 
used, you may raise the plank one foot and go around 
again, raising the wall one foot each day, if you have men 



110 FEEDING ANIMALS. 

enough. You will place the window frames in the boxes 
when the wall is raised high enough to bring the top of 
the frame to the top of the proposed wall. The jambs 
and sills of the window frames will be as wide as the door 
frames. 

Proportions for Water-lime Concrete. 

If you have only sand to use, mix five parts with one of 
water-lime, thoroughly, while dry; then wet into a thin 
mortar and use immediately. But if you also have gravel, 
mix the sand and water-lime, four to one, then mix into 
this five or six of gravel, make into a thin mortar and use 
at once. This will make a concrete of about nine to one. 
If you also have stones to lay with it, put these stones into 
the boxes and cover with this mortar, and all the stone 
you put in will save so much mortar, and make your wall 
stronger while new. If you use only sand and stone, then 
mix the water-lime one to five, and lay the stone with it. 
The way is to put a layer of an inch of mortar in the 
bottom and then a layer of stone, then of mortar and so 
on, letting the mortar come over the edge of the stone. 

If the stones are not permitted to come quite to the out- 
side of the wall, the mortar over them will prevent them 
conducting moisture or frost through. The mortar should 
be tamped in, so as to fill every crevice. 

There should be plenty of light in such a basement, for 
the health of the animals. Light is much more important 
than is generally supposed. The light of such a stable 
should be as great as in the living room of a dwelling- 
house. 

New Way of Building Long Barns. 

We have shown the great economy and convenience of 
the octagonal over that of the oblong form. There can be 
no doubt that the circular form brings the labor into much 



BFILDIXG LOIfG BAKNS. 



Ill 



smaller compass, this form of barn requiring less travel in 
feeding the animals and less labor in storing the crops. 
But the "writer knows how tenaciously the farmers hold to 
old ways and opinions; and since they will largely build 
the oblong form, it may be of service to show them how 
cheaply they may avoid many of the interior posts and 
beams which so obstruct labor in filling such barns. 




Fig. 14. 

If the barn is 40 feet wide and the posts 25 feet long, all 
the purlin posts and beams may be left out, and these 
obstructions thus avoided by using a long, strong brace 
from the top of each cross-beam, over the floor, to near the 
top of each outside post. If the floor of the second story 
runs lengthwise of the barn, each bent will have a cross- 
beam, the top of which will be 13 feet above the floor, 
running across the barn from outside post to outside post. 
Now, instead of the ordinary short brace from the top of 
this beam to the outside post, the brace should be 6 x 8 



112 FEEDIN'G ANIMALS. 

inches square, of hard, strong wood, and have 12 feet run 
from. the post on top of the beam, and 10 feet run up the 
post, reaching nearly to the top. (See fig. 14.) 

These braces should be framed into a shallow boxing at 
each foot on beam and post, and firmly held in its place by 
a M-iuch iron bolt through the foot of the brace and beam 
or post, and the nut turned up on a broad washer on foot 
of the brace. The nut may be tightened when the timber 
shrinks. This will hold the foot of the brace very firmly, 
and the brace, being so long, will hold the top of the post 
rigidly in place and prevent the plates from spreading. 

Then let the roof be between a quarter and a third pitch; 
the rafters, 3x6 inches, and spread not more than 28 
inches from center to center. Collar-beam each pair of 
rafters, 4 feet below the ridge, with iMx 4-inch stufp, well 
nailed. This will hold the roof as safely as purlins, and it 
will be practically free from obstructions above the beams. 
It is true these cross-beams over the floor will be somewhat 
in the way, as compared to the self-supporting roof of the 
octagon; but there is always room to elevate the horse-fork 
between the beams, and, there being no obstruction above, 
the fork may be run to the roof without hinderance. 

These strong braces from beam to post running to the 
back side of the bay, and at right-angles with the floor, will 
not at all obstruct filling or jjitching out from the bay. 

Let us call attention to the great economy as well as 
convenience of this improvement of the long barn. If this 
long barn be 40 x 180 feet, to compare with a 90-foot 
octagon, it would require 12 bents; and, consequently, 
there would be 24 outside posts, requiring 24 strong braces, 
bolted as described. The labor of framing these 24 braces 
would be less than framing the 24 purlin posts. Forty- 
eight bolts, 16 inches long, required to hold the braces, 
would cost, with washers, 16 cents each, or $7.68 only, for 
this large barn. Now, let us see what timber it would 



BARN 'FOR ONE THOUSAXD HEAD. 113 

save. Twelve cross-purlin beams, 8 x 8, 20 feet long — 1,384 
fei-t ; 3 (JO feet of 8 x 8 timber, for long purlin plates, being 
1,920 feet of lumber ; 48 six-foot braces at foot and top of 
tbe posts — 576 feet; amounting in all to 3,780 feet of 
lumber, costing 140 or more, according to location ; and 
the labor of framing the timber and putting together would 
be at least as much more. The average saving by the 
improved method would be $100. 

It will be seen that from this long floor the barn can be 
completely filled to the ridge with the horse-fork, and 
would require but little labor in mowing away. 

In this form the barn may be made any length desired, 
and may afterwards be extended at will. This form of 
long barn requires the smallest amount of timber and 
lumber consistent with its length ; but the travel from 
,each end of this barn to the center is 90 feet, whilst in the 
90-foot octagon it is but 45 feet, each having the same 
capacity. 

This barn is supposed to have a basement for the animals. 
But to make the basement of this barn as convenient in 
space for carrying away the manure as the octagon it would 
require to be 44 feet wide. 

The great point about this form of oblong barn is the 
facility of lengthening it at pleasure, and its comparative 
freedom from interior posts or obstructions. 

Barn for 1,000 Head of Cattle. 

Having discussed the best form of barn, and described a 
cheap and convenient method of building oblong barns, 
which may be lengthened at any time to suit convenience, 
without any change in its present form, giving reasons for 
preferring the octagonal form, except for barns 40 feet 
square or less, we now proceed to describe two forms for a 
barn that will accommodate large feeding operations upon 
western farms, where the large feeders shall be convinced 



114 FEEDING ANIMALS. 

of the greater economy of controlling the temperature in 
which their cattle are kept in winter by warm barns, 
instead of exposing them to the cold, external air, with its 
storms of wind, rain and snow, and expending a large 
amount of food to produce the heat which is lost by this 
exposure. The time will certainly come when there shall 
be an accurate comparison between the two systems of 
out-door and in-door feeding in winter. As heretofore 
stated, all the comparisons made between these two modes 
of feeding have been with cattle unaccustomed to in-door 
feeding, and the nervous excitement counterbalanced the 
benefit of the warmer temperature, there remaining only 
the saving in food. This period of out-door feeding has 
occurred in every state during the first half-century of its 
growth, but has gradually disappeared as land and food 
became dearer. 

If a large number of cattle are to be fed on one farm 
large barns will be more economical than small ones. But 
if it is proposed to feed one thousand head of cattle under 
one roof, the form of this barn will have much to do with 
its cost, as well as the expense of labor in feeding. If it 
were constructed in one long barn, with two rows of cattle, 
or oOO head in a row, the barn must be 1,625 feet long, or 
nearly 100 rods. This would be quite too long drawn out. 
We must seek for a form of barn radiating from a center, 
with eight double rows of cattle. This will give a distance 
of only 203 feet each way from the center, allowing 3 feet 
3 inches for each steer. 

Octagon" Eight-winged Barn. 

But as room will be required at the center for many 
purposes, in feeding so many cattle, we must have an 
octagonal center, each side of which is wide enough for a 
wing to radiate 30 feet wide. This will require an octagonal 
center 80 feet in diameter, giving sides about 33 feet 2 



SQUARE-CROSS BARIS". 115 

inches long. Now, eight wings, 30 feet wide and 200 feet 
long^ each having room for 126 head of cattle, will contain 
in all 1,008 head. From this octagonal center it will be 
just 200 feet to the most distant animal in either of the 
wings. Each wing will be opposite a like wing on the 
other side of the octagonal center, and consequently there 
may be a continuous floor from each through the center 
and the opposite wing, and from the center either of the 
eight wings is equally accessible. The reader will see at a 
glance how compact and conveniently reached all these 
thousand cattle are. Each wing should stand upon a base- 
ment wall, 8 feet high (the basement story occupied with 
the cattle), and it may be built as capacious as the feeder 
requires for winter storage. The fodder or grain over the 
basement can be easily dropped through upon the feeding 
floors below, so that the convenience in handling food for 
the cattle could not be greater. But there are some draw- 
backs in this eight-winged barn which we will point out, 
and see if they can be avoided by any other plan. 

These long wings have the prime objection of the narrow, 
oblong barn — too much outside wall, and too much timber 
for the space inclosed. This could be improved by building 
the wings 60 feet wide, giving room for two double rows 
of cattle, so that each wing should contain 252 cattle, 
instead of 126. This would dispense with one-half of the 
wings, and still hold the same number of cattle. But the 
sides of an octagonal center will not admit of so wide a 
wing ; we must, therefore, have a quadrangular center of 
62 feet diameter, with four wings, 62 feet wide and 200 
feet long, radiating from the four sides of the quadrangle. 

This will be a 

Square-Cross Barn, 

having all its extreme parts equidistant from the center. 
It will be the same distance from this quadrangular center 



116 FEEDING ANIMALS. 

to the extreme animal in either wing as from the octagonal 
center. This form Avill, therefore, be equally convenient. 
By doubling the width of the wings, we dispense with eight 
long sides, 200 feet each, or 1,600 feet ; and as the ends of 
the four wings are the same length as the eight wings, the 
saving in outside wall is 1,600 feet. And if these sides are 
20 feet high, and boarded up and down with a two-inch 
batten, it will take 36,933 feet to cover these sides thus 
dispensed with. It will also save all the outside and 
interior posts of the four wings dispensed with, as it will 
require no more posts in a wing 60 feet wide than in one 
30 feet wide. This will make a saving of about 22,000 
feet ; and the outside sills and plates on these eight long 
sides will be saved, amounting to 24,000 feet, besides girths 
and braces — amounting in all to a saving of 100,000 feet. 
The roofs and floors will cover the same number of square 
feet as in the eight wings, and cost about the same. It 
would also save 14,400 cubic feet of wall. The whole 
saving by building the wings 60 feet wide could not be 
less than two-fifths of the whole cost of the barn ; and the 
convenience and economy of labor must be even greater 
than with the eight narrow wings. This square-cross barn 
has the capacity to feed, conveniently and comfortably, one 
thousand head of cattle ; and it now remains to notice 
some of the details of construction. 

The quadrangular center, 62 feet in diameter, may be 
built with large corner-posts, say 14 x 14 inches square, 37 
feet long, and the plates and girths of the wing may be 
framed into these posts ; but it probably would be better 
that the wing should have separate corner-j^osts, and tliey 
be bolted to the posts of the center. The quadrangular 
center should be high enough above the wings to clear the 
ridge of its roof. This would require the posts of the 
center building to be 17 or 18 feet longer than the wing 
posts, as the ridge of the wing roof should rise at least 17 



8QUA.EE-CE0SS BARN. 117 

feet in 60 feet, and come up under the cornice of the center 
building. As these wings will cost about the same money 
with posts 16 feet long as with posts 20 feet, and the latter 
height will hold about 40 per cent, more, and as this storage 
room will be wanted for so many animals, it will be better 
to provide room in abundance, and make the posts 20 feet 
long. 

The floor in the wing above the basement will run length- 
wise of the building, and will be 16 feet wide, so that the 
posts on either side of the floor, running up to the cross- 
beam over the floor, may stand on a sill running lengthwise 
over the basement, and eight feet from the center, sup- 
ported by the stanchion timbers. These two sills will be 
strongly supported the whole length by the stanchion posts, 
placed only 38 inches from center to center, and will con- 
sequently hold the whole interior structure above. The 
bays on each side of the floor will be 22 feet wide, and 
there will be no loss in so wide a floor, as the hay may be 
mowed one or two feet upon each edge of the floor if more 
room is desired. There will be 12 bents, the outside posts 
being about 18 feet 2 inches from center to center. The 
top of the cross-beams, running from side to side of the 
barn, will be 13 feet above the sill, and will be sijliced at 
the post, or between the posts, on either side of the floor. 
On three of the bents the cross-beams should be carried up 
nearly to the plates, and the posts at the side of the floor 
must also be carried up to support the beam. The three 
bents (every third one) will tie the barn together, and, 
being so far apart, will not obstruct pitching with the 
horse-fork. These high beams, besides being pinned to the 
outside jDosts, should have a stirrup around the post, coming 
back ten inches upon the beam, with a f^-inch bolt through 
the stirrup and the beam, turned up tight with a nut ; and, 
if the beams are well spliced in the middle, this will hold 
the barn firmly from spreading at the plates. Now, to 



118 FEEDING ANIMALS. 

prevent this long wing from rocking or swaying by a strong 
broadside wind, these bents with the high beams should 
have a long, stiff brace, running from the foot of the post 
on the side of the floor to the outside post, just under this 
high beam. Such a long brace on each side will hold the 
barn rigidly from rocking. And whilst speaking of braces, 
let it be remembered that a brace is valuable just in 
proportion to its length. The braces from the outside 
posts up to the plates should have a four-foot run. 
They will assist very much in sustaining any weight 
upon the plates. It is not intended to have any purlins 
in these wings to support the roof, even though they 
be 60 feet wide. The brace on top of the beam, as de- 
scribed on page 112, for the long barn, will have a run, on 
beam from post, of 12 feet, running up the post just under 
the plate, and fastened by bolt, as there described. This 
will hold the plates absolutely rigid, and the roof will not 
spread them. The rafters will be as there described, only 
they should not be placed more than two feet apart, and 
the collar-beams should beli-lxS inches, and placed six 
feet below the ridge, with every other pair of rafters double 
collar-beamed ; that is, with a collar-beam nailed upon each 
side of the rafters. This will make a strong shingle roof. 
The collar-beams will be some 20 feet long, and will be 
about as good a support to the roof as purlin beams. The 
collar-beams would be as high as the barn would be likely 
to be filled, so that no room will be lost, and the barn will 
be practically free from obstructions to pitching with a 
horse-fork. 

In the bents, where the cross-beams are raised nearly to 
the plates, there must be a beam framed into the posts on 
each side of the floor, 13 feet above the sills, to correspond 
with the other beams over the floor, upon which scaffold- 
ing may be placed for using the room over the floor. It 
remains only to be mentioned that the interior sills are 



BASEMENT FOR CATTLE. 119 

four cross sills, 40 feet apart, to tie the barn together at 
the bottom, and two sills running lengthwise, one on each 
side of the floor — that is, the center of each of these long 
sills is placed eight feet from the center of the barn. The 
joists for the bays will run from these long sills, on each 
side of the floor, to the outside sill — about 21 feet, and 
these joists may be supported near the center by a row of 
stanchion timbers. Each of these long sills come over a 
row of stanchion timbers in the basement below. 

The reader will see that these wings above the basement 
are built in the simplest manner, using no surplus material, 
and as cheap as may be consistent, with substance and 
durability. 

Basement for Cattle. 

We will now examine the construction of the basements 
to these long wings. The wall under each of these wings, 
if built of concrete, 15 inches thick at the bottom, 12 
inches at top, and 8 feet high, being 462 feet long, would 
contain 4,204 cubic feet, and could be built in most places 
for 10 cents per cubic foot, or $420 per wing. The wall 
under the center would be 1,504 cubic feet, and cost $150 ; 
the wall under the entire square-cross barn would cost 
$1,830. These long sides would require something to 
stilfen the wall sidewise ; but a pier built against the wall 
on the inside would be in the way, and on the outside 
would look unsightly, so, to avoid the necessity for such 
piers, let a T be made of strong iron, say %x2 inches. 
The long end of the T should be about 20 inches, and 
built into the wall, and the cross lie across the top of the 
wall directly under the sill. The top of the T should pro- 
ject beyond the sill on each side far enough to have a 
M-inch hole punched, into which to insert a piece of the 
same flat iron, six inches long, rounded at one end. This 
will attach the wall to the sill. There should be four of 
these T 's for each side — one near each cross-sill, 40 feet 



120 FEEDING ANIMALS. 

apart. This will hold the whole wall to the beam and pre- 
vent any swaying. These long sides will give room for 
inserting plenty of windows for light, the frames placed in 
the boxes, and the concrete built over them. The sash 
may be hnng on a pivot in the center, so as to open easily 
to give ventilation at certain seasons ; but the fresh air 
should be introduced through the wall near the bottom, 
through hard-burned earthen or pottery pipes, 15-inch 
bore, just long enough to reach through the wall. These 
pipes may be laid in the boxes bedded in the concrete, and 
the concrete tamped down upon them. They may be 
placed ten feet apart and will not weaken in the wall. 
Close covers may be fitted to the inside, so as to shut them 
at will ; and with proper ventilators to discharge the heated 
and vitiated air through the upper part of the barn, there 
will be a constant circulation of fresh air through the 
basement. 

One other point must be mentioned in reference to the 
wall. A concrete wall contains a large amount of moisture, 
and if the sills are to be placed on before the wall becomes 
quite dry, which is usually the case, the moisture will pass 
up into the green timber of the sill, form a coating of lime 
on it, and prevent the sap from escaping, and the result is 
a rapid decay of the timber. To prevent tliis, take well- 
seasoned pine boards, 12 inches wide, coat one side with 
gas tar, and bed this tarred side in the mortar on top of 
the wall. The sills are laid on this leveled board, and no 
moisture can come through this board into the sill to rot 
it. This point is important — has been determined in our 
practical experience. 

Laying out the Basement. 

These long stables must be laid out so as to render the 
labor as convenient as possible. There must be ea^y access 
to every animal in the stable, and this becomes more 



LAYING OUT BASEMENT. 121 

important when one thousand cattle are to be provided for. 
Cattle are most easily attended when placed in double rows, 
with their heads turned towards one feeding floor. 

In this long basement, the first row of stanchion posts 
will be placed 8 feet from the wall, on the side of the first 
feeding floor, 14 feet wide. On the other side of the 
feeding floor is the second row of stanchion posts, coming 
up under one of the long sills, described above. Two and 
one-half feet being occupied by mangers on each side of 
this floor, will leave nine feet for a drive-way. Along this 
floor may pass a cart or a wagon, with green food in 
summer, or fodder in winter. The third row of stanchion 
posts will be 16 feet from the last, under the second long 
sill, on the side of second feeding floor ; and the fourth 
row will be 14 feet from the third, on the other side of the 
second feeding floor, and 8 feet from the other wall. Here 
two rows of cattle stand, with tails to the wall, and the 
two middle rows stand tail to tail, facing upon opposite 
floors. The largest animals should be placed in middle 
rows, as there is the most room. These stanchion posts are 
placed 3 feet 2 inches from center to center, and the cattle 
are best fastened to the center of a chain stretching from 
staple to staple driven into each stanchion post. These 
chains slide up and down on these staples, as shown in fig. 10. 
The mangers may be placed 20 inches from t-he ground, 
and, with long staples, the cattle may lie down comfortably. 
One of the best ways to feed cattle, with plenty of bedding 
and muck for deodorizing, is to let them stand three or 
four months on their manure, and, the mangers being 
placed high, the manure may accumulate two feet deep 
under them, and they may keep quite clean, with the 
bedding and muck, and the manure will be trodden so 
hard as to ferment very little. When a lot of cattle is 
sold, then wagons may be driven through to carry oif the 
manure. We have seen cattle fed in this manner, carded 
6 



122 FEEDING ANIMALS. 

occasionally, and kept quite clean standing on their manure 
for four months. 

These feeding floors, as described, stretch through the 
whole length of the barn. A feeding-car passes through 
two wings, and, by having a turn-table, may pass through 
any wing. Feed may be dropped through a chute on the 
side of the upper floor into the car wherever placed on any 
feeding floor. This form of barn gives every facility for any 
style of feeding, cutting and cooking the food, or cutting 
and grinding — a large engine, placed in the center, would 
do all the work ; and this also offers the best facility for 
soiling this thousand head in summer. 

Sheep Baens. 

There have been a variety of forms in sheep barns rec- 
ommended — some contending that sheep should never be 
wintered in inclosed barns, that sheds are a sufficient shel- 
ter, and all the confinement that sheep can stand with 
health. 

But in all the Northern and Eastern States the best 
shepherds have discarded the open shed as a protection 
in the cold season, and now advise barns that can be 
closed completely or as securely as barns for cattle, when 
the weather requires it — not forgetting ample means of 
ventilation. 

Sheep require roomy stables, but they are as much bene- 
fited as other stock by a nearly uniform temperature. It is 
therefore profitable to provide warm and well-ventilated 
stables, basements, not sunk in the earth, preferable. Per- 
haps. the style of long barn, we have described, is as well 
adapted to sheep as to cattle. Sheep require ample room 
to store fodder, and this long barn, 40 feet wide, with a 
basement walled in with concrete, would furnish a stable 
of remarkably even temperature, and affording every de- 
sired facility for ventilation. The concrete wall furnishes 



SHEEP BAKXS. 123 

a much drier basement than a mason-laid stone wall, which 
often conducts moisture and frost to the inside, whilst the 
basement with concrete wall is as dry as if wooden-walled. 

The advantage of the new style long barn is that it may 
be extended at any time without any change in its con- 
struction. Such a barn 40 x 40 would accommodate 150 
merinos or 100 long-wools. This basement, with a double 
rack and trough through the center, dividing it into two 
apartments, will furnish room for 75 on each side, or if 
40 X 60 feet, would provide room for 225 merinos or 150 
Cotswold or Leicesters. 

This barn, with its floor lengthwise, furnishes a very con- 
venient means, by its door-trap through the floor, of drop- 
ping the fodder into the double rack below. Here is also 
abundant room for storing a full supply of fodder, and of 
grain or other feed for fattening purposes. The floor over a 
sheep stable should be dust tight, keeping the wool free 
from dust; and one of the best ways to make a floor dust- 
tight is to place pine lath under the joints of the boarding 
across the joists, and apiece on the joists under each board. 
The lath laps on each board three-quarters of an inch, 
and thus makes a tighter floor than one that is matched. 
The lath is nailed to the under side of the floor between 
the joists. 

DOUBLE SHEEP EACK. 

The form of rack from which to feed sheep is somewhat 
important. It should be so constructed as to save all the 
fodder, and to prevent the hay-seed and dust from getting 
into the wool. The author has constructed a double rack 
and trough which is represented in fig. 15. This is an end 
view and will readily be understood. 

Scantling 5 feet 8 inches long are placed about 30 inches 
apart. 

a. Plank IK x 8 inches for the bottom of the trough. 

h. Sliding board, reaching down and nailed to the 



124 



FEEDING ANIMALS. 



bottom board of the trough, about six inches from the 
outside. 

c. Eack slats 1)^ x 2 inches nailed to the sliding board 
6 inches from the bottom, rising 3 feet from the bottom of 
the rack, and nailed at the top to a scantling {d) 2 x 2>^ 
inches. The rack slats lean from the trough 4 inches at 
top to prevent hay-seed from falling upon the head, and 
are only 3 inches apart. 

d. A scantling 2x2)4 inches to which the rack slats are 
nailed at the top. 

e. Front side of the trough 8 inches wide. 




Fig. 15.— END VIEW OF DOUBLE RACK AND TROUGH. 

/, Bar across the top of the trough to the rack slat to 
divide the trough and prevent sheep from getting into it. 
These bars are placed across at every third slat, and may be 
placed at every second slat, if a narrower division is found 
best. 

Both sides of this rack are precisely alike. It will be 
seen that nothing can be wasted, for all short bits of fod- 
der and seed will slide between the slats into the trougli, a 
little meal or bran placed upon this refuse will cause it all 
to be eaten. This rack furnishes a place for feeding grain 



SHEEP SHELTER. 125 

as well as hay. This double rack placed through the 
center of the basement above described, will divide it into 
two apartments, and receive its fodder from the opening in 
the floor above. 

If this rack is to be used against a wall it can be made 
single by dividing it perpendicularly in the middle. It can 
l^e made single as well as double. If it is to be used as a 
short rack, and the end not placed against a wall, then 
the end must be boarded or slatted. 

This rack would be equally convenient in the yard, 
where it is appropriate to feed in the open yard. The 
trough in the illustration is supposed to be 12 inches wide 
and 8 inches deep, but it may be made wider if desired. 
We think this rack and trough will be found to prevent 
the sheep, as far as possible, from rubbing oS their wool 
in eating their food, and that it also prevents the waste of 
food, and besides saves labor in feeding by providing for 
feeding grain and coarse fodder together. 

On the Western plains very little attention is paid to 
shelter for sheep. Yet we think even there a temporary 
shelter should always be provided, and if the ranch is large, 
and little, if any, winter fodder is provided, there should 
be several warm sheep corrals, made with poles and 
thatched with wild grass or straw. These may be arranged 
so as to protect the sheep from wind and snow-storms. 
Such precaution will often save a large part of the flock, 
and always bring them through in better condition. Tem- 
perature has much to do with the necessity for food. Ex- 
posure to hard storms makes a heavy draft upon the food 
to keep up animal heat, and if food is short the heat must 
come from the store of fat laid up in the body. 

The need of shelter is less in the South, but the temper- 
ature there often falls so low as to render shelter a matter 
of economy to the mutton and wool-grower. Shelter, as a 
means of preserving animal heat, is cheaper than food, 
even in the South. 



126 rEEDI2!fG ANIMALS. 



CHAPTER y. 

PRINCIPLES OF ALIMENTATION. 

The true and complete office performed by the food in 
the growth and development of our domestic animals has 
been quite too little considered by many even of our 
advanced feeders. Let us instance intelligent Short-horn 
breeders. 

Much has justly been written in praise of the Short-horn 
as the highest and most perfect bovine type of human food; 
but, we fear that in the minds of many, too great faith is 
placed upon the constitution and blood of the animal, and 
too little upon the process by which this perfected type has 
been produced. They seem to think that this perfected 
animal has power to change the elements of its food, and 
add an aroma and flavor to its flesh which was not contained 
in its food. At the meeting of the National Short-horn 
Breeders' Convention, at Cincinnati, a learned member, in 
an elaborate paper, proposed, as the best means of improving 
the flavor and quality of the flesh of each breeding animal, 
to slaughter some of its offshoots — discarding those whose 
flesh is not of the desired quality, and he made no suggestion 
of the necessity of appropriate food as affecting flavor ; but 
he instanced the antelope and other wild animals as possess- 
ing the same flavor of flesh to-day as a thousand years ago; 
from which we suppose that he regarded the flavor of the 
flesh as dependent entirely upon the constitution and fixed 
character of the animal, and not upon the food. But, 
what would be the effect of domesticating the antelope, and 
changing its food from that of the broad range and great 



PEIKCIPLES OF ALIMENTATION. 127 

variety of sweet and aromatic herbs, to the prepared pas- 
ture of a few simple grasses, and the allowance, for short 
periods, of one or two of our cultivated grains ? Would it 
take a thousand years, or any considerable fraction of it, to 
change the flavor of its flesh ? No animal has the power 
of extracting a flavor from food which it does not contain. 
The animal creates nothing — simply elaborates and appro- 
priates what it finds in its food. We are not left to mere 
theory upon this question. Numerous trials in domesticat- 
ing wild species are on record. The wild turkey and wild 
goose undergo a transformation in a few years so that the 
flavor of the flesh can scarcely be told from that of the 
domestic variety, while high feeding has increased the fat 
and weight of the bird. The domesticated partridge fol- 
lows the same law. The deer, under domestication, loses 
the peculiar wild flavor of its flesh. 

In England large numbers of deer are kept in the parks. 
Mr. Joseph Harris, writing of a visit he made to England 
in 1879, said: "I saw thousands of deer in the diflferent 
parks. But they have abundance of rich grass in the sum- 
mer, and during winter they are furnished with hay when- 
ever necessary. Now, I am very fond of venison ; and so, 
on our return home on the steamer Gallia, one day, when 
we had a saddle of venison for dinner, I ordered some, ex- 
pecting a great treat. But it was not venison at all. It was 
cut from the carcass of one of those English half-domesti- 
cated deer that run in the parks and are furnished a regu- 
lar supply of food. But it was not what we call venison 
in this country. It lacked flavor — was more like mutton. 
The flesh was light colored, and there was half an inch or 
more of external fat, precisely as there is on well-bred and 
well-fed sheep." 

This is a demonstration of the effect of food. The 
Cheviot sheep of Northumberland hills and Scottish high- 
lands, feeding upon many wild grasses and aromatic herbs, 



128 FEEDING ANIMALS. 

have a peculiar flavor of flesh which recommends their 
mutton ; and the small sheep upon the Welsh hills possess 
a great reputation for flavor, and bring a higher price than 
the sheep of the lowlands. But a change made for a few 
years with each also changes the comparative quality. The 
Swiss cow, feeding upon her high-flavored native grasses 
upon the Swiss mountains, yields higher-flavored milk, 
butter and cheese than the same cow when fed upon the 
lowlands. 

The intelligent dairyman knows that the quality of his 
milk is dependent upon the food provided for his cows. 
He does not expect to produce rich milk from straw, what- 
ever may be the strain of blood in his cows. The finest 
Jersey is not expected to produce delicious flavored milk 
upon leeks and garlic ; but you might as well attempt to 
breed a cow that would give as delicious flavored milk 
upon leeks, cabbages, onions and turnips as upon the 
sweetest June grasses, as to expect to succeed in breeding 
animals the flavor of whose flesh will be independent of the 
quality of their food. 

It is quite true that an animal of fixed characteristics 
will select and appropriate such elements in its food as its 
system requires for the reproduction of all its peculiarities; 
but the animal which has produced nicely-marbled and 
highly-flavored flesh under circumstances of appropriate 
food and conditions, cannot long continue to do this under 
changed food and conditions. 

If you wish to imitate the flavor of the wild animal you 
must furnish the food of the wild animal. 

These facts are dwelt upon to show the folly of attempt- 
ing to breed an animal that shall be independent of the 
quality of its food. If you find ofishoots from animals, 
both male and female, of the highest possible quality of 
flesh, it will be well to breed from them, because " like pro- 
duces like," under the same circumstances ; but the animal 



EARLY MATTJRITT. 129 

is always dependent upon its food for its quality of flesh. 
Although one animal, from its constitution, has greater 
power of utilizing its food elements, and of selecting or 
rejecting different elements than other animals of the same 
species, yet it cannot elaborate or utilize what is not there. 

Early Maturity. 

Having found that the animal must depend j^rimarily 
upon its aliment for growth and quality, the next impor- 
tant consideration is how this aliment should be given — 
whether the growth should be slow or rapid — should take 
the longest natural period required by a scanty diet, or the 
shortest possible attainment of maturity under the most 
judicious and skillful feeding. That we may form a safe 
opinion upon this question, it is requisite to examine some 
of the circumstances attending growth and maturity. 
While the animal is young and immature, its appetite, 
digestive and assimilative functions are most active; and 
these functions grow less and less active after maturit3\ 
After the period of perfect development, the natural hubit 
of the animal is to eat and digest only so much as is neces- 
sary to supply the waste of its tissues; and, consequently, 
its weight remains nearly stationary. Another most im- 
portant point is, that while the animal is young, and in an 
active stage of growth, the percentage of waste in its sys- 
tem is much less than at and after maturity. The food of 
support, or what is necessary to supply the constant waste 
of the system, and keep the animal without loss, has accu- 
mulated to a large item at maturity. It then becomes very 
clear, that the interest of the feeder requires that the short- 
est possible time should be given to the growth of an ani- 
mal intended for food. It must be evident that in careless 
and unskillful feeding the cost of simply supplying the 
waste of the system during four years' feeding of steers 



130 FEEDING AN"IMALS. 

will be as great as to produce animals of the same weiglit 
at 24 to 30 months ; or, in other words, skillful feeding of 
young animals will produce twice as much weight at 24 as 
at 48 months, on the same food. 

" But," say some, " your steer cannot be mature at 24 
months." It is true that the marks of full development 
are that the permanent teeth are complete, the animal 
fully grown, and all its physical qualities perfect. The ox 
perfects its teeth at four to five years, the pig at two to two 
and one-half years. These times of dentition occur in a 
state of nature, when the animals seek their own scanty 
food, or under the care of a slipshod and penurious feeder. 
But the improved breeds, after years of skillful feeding, 
mature in from one to two and one-half years earlier. 

M. Regnault, at a cattle fair in France, in 1846, found a 
bull only two years old that had all his permanent teeth, 
and all the points of development and maturity in perfec- 
tion ; and was from this fact led to make investigation of 
the effect of careful and judicious breeding and feeding in 
hastening the maturity of animals. He says : 

" Thanks to a better system of management and feeding 
of cattle, and to judicious and advantageous crossings, it is 
certain that many of our bovine race have experienced in 
their form, and especially in their precocious development, 
unmistakable changes for the better. Whatever may be 
the cause of this remarkable aptitude of certain breeds to 
acquire their growth early, it is evident that such preco- 
cious development cannot be confined to any particular 
organs. If every one has not equally participated in it, at 
least they are all more or less affected by it. Above all, 
the digestive system — the part called in to play an impor- 
tant part in producing such an aptitude for early develop- 
ment, since all must essentially result from the nature and 
action of alimentation — must be one of the first to undergo 
modifications." 



EARLY MATURITY. 131 

Here, it a]3pears, that thirty-six years ago perfect devel- 
opment was found at two years ; and the French scientist 
states clearly that perfect teeth must, as a general rule, be 
accompanied with full development of all the parts. So 
this precocity, when it becomes established, must continue, 
under favorable circumstances, as a permanent character- 
istic of the animal. A study of the facts accompanying 
early maturity shows that the animal is as completely 
developed in all its parts as if it had been produced, under 
the old style of feeding and management, at the end of 
four instead of two years. This quite disproves the objec- 
tion that all things require a certain amount of time to 
perfect their construction and growth — that whatever is 
rapidly produced must be wanting in completeness and 
perfection. 

Objectors have regarded this as a demonstration; but it 
is merely an assumption. All the processes of digestion 
and assimilation are chemical processes. Combustion is 
also a chemical process ; but will any one say that the slow 
combustion of wood by rot and decay in the open air is any 
more perfect combustion than its rapid reduction to ashes 
by fire ? 

In the natural state the animal gathers its coarse, fibrous 
food by long and toilsome exertion ; and its small percent- 
age of nutriment is assimilated into the tissues of its body. 
But, under the best system of growing animals, the food is 
given in a more soluble and assimilable condition, and in as 
large quantities as the animal can digest, which can all be 
utilized in much less time. Is it reasonable then, as a 
matter of theory, to suppose that its digestion and assimi- 
lation will be less perfect ? 

Our present excellent varieties of wheat are supposed 
once to have been only wild grasses, with their thin and 
■ skinny seeds. Does any one think our varieties of wheat 
have degenerated ? 



132 FEEDING ANIMALS. 

The magnificent pippin, with all our improved apples, are 
supposed to have sprung from the wild crab, and each of 
these improved products ripen earlier than the parent 
stock. Are they less perfect? The illustration may be 
carried into every department of vegetable and animal 
growth 

It thus appearing that the quality of the flesh must 
depend upon the quality of the food; and that all food 
produces a greater profit when fed to young than mature 
animals — thus showing the great importance of early ma- 
turity as an element in the profit of growing animals for 
their flesh. 

But so far we have treated the subject more from the 
standpoint of general principle and theory than of definite 
experiments, which appeal more forcibly to the practical 
stock-feeder's judgment, and are more likely to control his 
action. It may be laid down as an axiom, that 

Peofitable Feeding must be done Before Maturity. 

Let us fortify this position by facts and experiments. 

As we have seen, the digestive and assimilative organs of 
the young animal are in the greatest activity; and thus the 
stock-grower must take advantage of this period to pro- 
duce the best result in feeding. Careful experiments show 
a constant increase in the food required to produce a pound 
of live weight, as the animal increases in size and age. 

Two separate experiments were tried at the Michigan 
Agricultural College Farm, in 1866-68. In the former, 
three pigs, and in the latter, six pigs were fed upon milk. 
The pigs were from four to six weeks old at the commence- 
ment of the experiment. The average amount of milk to 
produce one pound of live weight, was : first week, 6.76 
pounds; second week, 7.75 pounds; third week, 12.28 
pounds; fourth week, 10.42 pounds. The professor says 



PBOFITABLE FEEDING BEFORE MATURITY. 133 

the cause of its requiring a greater amount of milk the 
third week to produce a pound live weight, is explained by 
a " derangement of the digestive organs during this week, 
as shown in a tendency to constipation." He also remarks 
that " the milk to produce a pound live weight constantly 
increases." 

The experiment of 1868 was continued afterward for 
twenty weeks, upon corn meal. This experiment was 
divided into five periods of four weeks each. The amount 
of corn meal required to make one pound live weight is : 
first period, 3.81 pounds; second period, 4.05 pounds; 
third period, 4.22 pounds; fourth period, 5.24 pounds; 
fifth period, 5.98 pounds. 

In 1869 anothc-r experiment was tried, with a larger num- 
ber of pigs, and very nearly the same result in respect to 
amount of meal required to produce one pound of live 
weight, and substantially the same increase in quantity of 
feed required to produce one pound of live weight as the 
pigs grow larger and older. 

An examination of the meal experiment will show that 
in the fifth period, when the pigs were from twenty-four to 
twenty-eight weeks old, it took 75 per cent, more of meal to 
make a pound of live pork, than in the first period, when 
the pigs were from eight to twelve weeks old. And other 
experiments have shown that this ratio of increase in food 
to make a pound live weight, substantially goes on with 
the age and weight of the pig. 

In 1874 the writer tried a similar experiment with ten 
calves fed upon skim-milk. The calves and the milk fed 
were weighed and calculated for each week. The first 
week it required 11.02 pounds of milk for one pound of 
gain; second week, 12.18 pounds; third week, 13.17 
pounds; fourth week, 13.40 pounds; fifth week, 14.60 
pounds; sixth week, 15.05 pounds; seventh week, 16.71 
pounds; eighth week, 16.80 pounds; ninth- week, 17.01 



134 FEEDING ANIMALS. 

pounds; tenth week, 16.08 pounds; eleventh week, 16 
pounds; twelfth week, 15.90 pounds. 

The calves gained very unequally, individually, owing to 
the constitution of each calf. Some gained much more 
rapidly than others, and also gained quite unequally in dif- 
ferent weeks ; but the result stated is the average of the 
ten. We regarded this experiment as very instructive ; not 
only as showing the constant increase in cost of putting on 
a pound live weight, but as showing the value of skim 
milk in growing calves. It will be observed that the 
amount of milk began to decrease the tenth week. This 
was caused by the calves learning to eat grass. They 
increased more rapidly after learning to eat grass, when 
given at the same time what milk they would drink. It 
may be interesting to some of our readers to state, that we 
find skim milk worth from 30 to 50 cents per 100 pounds 
to feed calves up to the age of six months. By the aid of 
milk, with abundance of grass, they may be made to weigh 
from 450 to 600 pounds at that age ; and a continuance of 
this liberal feeding, although grain is substituted for milk, 
may produce yearlings of 800 to 1,000 pounds weight, 
instead of little more than half that weight under a scanty 
system of feeding. The experiments of Sir J. B. Lawes, 
of Kothamstead, England, also prove that the cost of put- 
ting on weight is in proportion to the age and size of the 
animal. This fact appears very plain and indisputable to 
any one who has studied it ; and yet, a want of its practi- 
cal adoption among stock -growers, causes a loss of not less 
than $50,000,000 per year in the United States. And this 
would only be $11.50 per head for the 4,341,824 head 
received at seven principal live stock markets of the 
country in 1881. A close examination would have shown 
that more than $50,000,000 in food had been thrown away 
in this slow and unprofitable growth. We do not mean 
that all of them had been grown in disregard of the law of 



STUDY THE NATURE OF ANIMALS. 135 

early maturity; but seveu-tentlis of them had, no doubt, 
suffered from ignorance of this law we have illustrated. 
And next we should 

Study the Natuee of the Animal we Feed. 

Stock-growers often neglect this injunction. Forgetting 
the natural habit of the animal, and anxious to make the 
most rapid progress, they ply it with too concentrated food, 
and thus cause fever and other diseases in the system. 
Ruminating animals are possessed of capacious stomachs, 
calculated to manipulate bulky and fibrous food. Nature 
never intended that they should be fed upon concentrated 
food alone. The grains grow upon stalks having twice the 
weight of the seeds, and animals naturally eat both seeds 
and stalks together. The ruminating animal requires to 
eat grain with the coarse, fibrous stalk, in order that it 
should go to the first stomach, have the benefit of the 
macerating process of the rumen, and be raised, remasti- 
cated and mixed with the saliva. Some six different exper- 
iments have proved to me that corn meal, shelled corn, rye, 
oats and other fine feed do not, to any material extent, go 
to the first stomach when fed to cattle alone. One or two 
experiments by others have seemed to contradict these; 
but we have only to refer the Western feeder of corn in the 
ear to the droppings of his cattle, to prove most conclu- 
sively that the corn does not go to the first stomach. For, 
if the corn descended into the rumen, and was raised and 
reniasticated, how could the large proportion of kernels 
found whole in the droppings escape unbroken ? We have 
seen them so thick over droppings that there was hardly 
an inch space between them. This must be considered 
not only a wasteful way of feeding grain, but injurious to 
the health of the cattle so fed. But in many parts of the 
Eastern States, quite as little knowledge of the nature of 
the ruminant is shown, by feeding fine corn meal alone. 



136 FEEDING ANIMALS. 

This, being moistened with saliva, passes to the third and 
fourth stomachs in the solid form of the house-wife's 
dough. The gastric juice cannot penetrate and circulate 
through this; and, consequently, the meal is often found 
in the manure, very little changed. Some respectably- 
read physiologists will inform you that the muscular coat 
of the stomach (see page 49), by its contraction, gives a 
gentle motion to the contents of the stomach, intermixing 
these with the gastric juice, but in the case of the plastic 
corn-meal dough, this muscular action could only succeed 
in rolling it over, but could not break it, or render it 
porous for the entrance or absorption of the gastric juice. 
But if this meal is fed with cut hay or straw, so that both 
must be eaten together, the bits of hay or straw separate 
the particles of meal, so that the gastric juice can circulate 
through the mass as water does through a sponge. When 
thus fed, the meal goes with the cut hay to the rumen ; is 
there softened, raised and remasticated. The "Western 
feeder may save much of this loss of feeding corn in the 
ear, by running his unhusked corn — stalks, ears and all — 
through a straw-cutter, cutting one-quarter of an inch in 
length, and then feeding all together. This will cause all 
to be remasticated, and the corn very fairly digested. 

We have practised this mode of feeding as an experi- 
ment, and found no corn to pass in the droppings un- 
broken. It would effect a saving to Western feeders of at 
least 20 per cent, over their present mode of feeding in 
shock. This j)oint will be further discussed in its projier 
place. 

Violence is also done to the /lature of the horse when he 
is fed upon grain alone. We have seen a horse that so well 
understood his own wants that, when fed ground grain, 
would take a mouthful^ of meal and then a mouthful of 
h;iy, and mix them together himself while eating. This 
horse understood animal physiology better than his master. 



IMPROPEE FEEDING. 137 

Improper feeding of grain is a most fruitful source of dis- 
ease among horses. 

But no class of animals is so much abused from a want 
of proper understanding of their nature as swine. The 
fact that they are gi'ass-eating animals as much as the ox 
or the horse, seems to be ignored entirely by the largest 
class of pig-feeders. Pigs are put upon corn at weaning 
age, and kept upon it until slaughtered, if cholera does not 
cut them off in advance. The pig needs for health a little 
grass or clover hay mixed with the grain diet, as much as 
other grass-eating animals. We have tested pigs upon 
meal and grass, and, at the same time, others upon meal 
alone, in summer, and upon meal and nicely-cured clover 
hay, softened with boiling water, in winter, and have 
always found from 25 to 40 per cent, in favor of the mix- 
ture of grass or clover. But this subject will be further 
discussed under its proper head. 

We have seen how very important in the economy of 
feeding is the element of time, and that the "storing 
system," or keeping animals at a standstill for the purpose 
of feeding at some future period, is always attended with a 
great loss of food. Let us now attempt to give some prac- 
tical suggestions on 

How TO Feed Young Animals. 

As the reader has seen, we believe much in the teachings 
of Nature, and that a feeder can never mistake when he 
follows her as closely as circumstances will permit. If 
then we take the four great classes of farm stock, cattle, 
horses, sheep and swine, we find that Nature furnishes for 
their early growth a very perfect food — milk. She pro- 
vides, in this elixir for young life, every element required 
to build the bones and extend the frame — to grow the 
muscles, tissues and nerves — to lubricate the joints, cush- 
ion or pad with soft suet the exposed parts of the frame, 



138 



FEEDIITG ANIMALS. 



and to round out into lines of beauty and harmony the 
whole animal ; and if we would study the open secrets 
of Nature in her dealings with the young animal, we must 
look into the combination of elements in milk. The fol- 
lowing is an average of the composition of the milk of the 
cow, mare and ewe : 







Cow. 


Mare. 


Ewe. 


Caseine, or flesh -formers 


4.05 

3.80 

4.55 

.60 

87.00 


3.40 

2.50 

3.52 

.53 

90.05 


4 50 


mik'sugar, 1 Food of respiration and fat . . . 


...{ 


4.20 

5.00 

.68 


Water 


85 62 










100.00 


100.00 


100.00 



It will be observed that each of these analyses shows 
food rich in nitrogen, or muscle-forming nutriment. The 
calf receives food in the nutritive proportion of one of 
nitrogenous to 3.37 of carbonaceous elements. Liebig 
says : 

''The young animal receives, in the form of caseine 
(cheese), the chief constituent of the mother's blood. To 
convert caseine into blood, no foreign substance is required, 
and in the conversion of the mother's blood into caseine no 
elements of the constituents of the blood have been sepa- 
rated. When chemically examined, caseine is found to 
contain a very large proportion of the earth of bones, and 
that in a very soluble form, capable of reaching every part 
of the body." 

This shows clearly the great office performed by caseine 
in the growth of the young animal. It furnishes the 
nitrogen in the formation of the muscles, nerves, brain, 
skin, hair, hoofs and horns, and furnishes it in so soluble a 
form that it can reach every part of the body. J. F. W. 
Johnston gives two analyses of the ash in 1,000 pounds of 
milk: 



FEiEDIlfG TOFNG ANIMALS. 139 



I. 


n. 


2.31 


3.44 


0.43 


0.64 


0.07 


0.07 


1.44 


1.83 


0.24 


0.34 


0.42 


0.45 


4.90 


6.77 



Phosphate of lime 

Phosphate of magnesia. 

Phosphate of iron 

Chloride of potassium.. 

Chloride of sodium 

Free soda 



Here we find that something over one-half of the ash of 
milk is composed of phosphate of lime and magnesia, 
which accounts for the rapid growth of the calf in frame 
when full-fed upon milk. Here is found every mineral 
constituent required for every purpose in the living 
organism. Phosphate of lime is found in the muscles, 
skin, hair, hoofs and horns, as well as in the bones. The 
sugar of milk is admirably adapted as fuel in keeping up 
animal heat; and this is often illustrated in the ability of the 
calf to withstand cold, frequently showing that it feels cold 
less than its mother. Then the oil of the milk furnishes fat 
ready formed for use, and needs only to be appropriated by 
the young animal to be changed into animal fat. Thus milk 
is a perfect food, possessing every element required to build 
up the animal body. But the young animal uses milk only 
for a limited time, when other food must be substituted for 
it. The choice of this food, which is to replace the milk, 
requires some thought and skill, and the time when this 
substitution is to take place is an important element in 
determining the choice. A moment's reflection will show 
the great impropriety of substituting food for the young 
animal very different in its elements from milk, its natural 
food. Whatever food, then, is to be used, besides milk, 
for the calf, colt, lamb or pig, should be chosen because it 
possesses the important elements in common with milk, 
and in nearly a like proportion. The young animal must 
not suffer a check in its growth when the change takes 
place, if the greatest jDrofit is to be realized from it. In 
order that we may decide upon the best foods to be given in 



140 



FEEDING ANIMALS. 



lien of milk, let us examine the composition of most of our 
cereal grains and some by-products that may be used for 
that purpose. The following analyses of grains, and par- 
tial products of grains, represent a fair average of their 
constituents : 



















Digestible 










-a 


2 








NUTRIKNTS. 








i 




6 






a 


o 

a 


t3 

J3 








o 

a 


V 

S 




u 

> 




^1 


a 


£ 


O 


s 






H 


o 




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u 




ci 


M 


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u 


a 




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o 


< 


O 


O 


t=^ 


< 


< 


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fe 


^ 


Wheat 


14.4 
14.3 
14.3 
14.3 
14 4 


83 6 
83.7 
83.1 
82.7 
83 5 


13.0 
11.0 
9.5 
12.0 
10 


67.6 
69.2 
66.6 
55.7 
68 


3.0 
3.5 
7.0 
9.3 
5 5 


1.5 
2.0 
2.5 
6.0 
7 


2.0 
2.0 
2 6 
3.0 

91 1 


11.7 
9 9 
8.0 
9.0 
8 4 


64.3 
65.4 
58.9 
43.3 
fiO 6 


1.2 
1.6 

1.7 
4.7 
4.8 


5 8 


Rye 


7 


Biiley 


7 9 


Gilts 


6 


Indiun corn 


8 6 


Millet 


14.0 
14.3 


83.0 
83.2 


14.5 
22.4 


62.1 
52.3 


6 4 
9.2 


3 
2 5 


3.0 
2.5 


9 5 
20,2 


45.0 
54.4 


2.6 
1 7 


5 4 


Peas 


2 9 




14.5 
12.3 


82.0 

82.7 


25.5 
20.5 


45.5 
55.0 


11.5 

7.2 


2.0 
37.0 


3.5 

5.0 


23.0 
17 2 


50.2 
18.9 


1.4 
35.2 


2 2 


Fbix-seed 


4 9 


Oil-cake 


11.5 


80.0 


28.3 


41.3 


11.0 


10.0 


7.9 


24 8 


27.5 


8 9 


9. 


Wh'-at-bran 


13.1 


81.8 


1(5.0 


48.0 


17.8 


3.8 


5.1 


12.6 


42.7 


2.6 


3 9 


Ryp-bnin 


12.5 


83.0 


14.5 


53 5 


15.0 


3.5 


4.5 


12.2 


46 2 


3.6 


4 5 




12.5 


83.0 


13.0 


63.5 


4.8 


3.3 


3.0 


10.8 


54.0 


2.9 


5 7 







The above table will give the reader a good idea of the 
composition of most of the foods that may be selected to 
feed young animals, in lieu of a part or the whole of the 
milk. These grains are, of course, given ground into meal. 
But if we examine the table with a view of comparing the 
composition of each with that of milk, we shall find most 
of them deficient in albuminoids, or muscle-forming mat- 
ter. It will be remembered that the nitrogenous element 
of cow's milk is nearly one-third of the whole dry matter, 
or one to two of the carbonaceous (oil and sugar of milk) ; 
and that in the milk of the mare and the ewe, the nitro- 
genous is a little more than one-third of the dry matter. 

But this is simply comparing the absolute weight of the 
two classes of elements in food, and not fixing the nutritive 



FEEDING YOUNG ANIMALS. 141 

ratio. As we have seen in a former chapter, these two 
classes of elements are necessary to the maintenance of ani- 
mal life. The nutritive ratio signifies the ratio of digesti- 
ble albuminoids to digestible carbo-hydrates. The carbo- 
hydrates are starch, gum, sugar, etc. Fat or oil is also a 
carbo-hydrate, but it is estimated as having a heat-produc- 
ing and nutritive power 2.4 times as great as ordinary 
carbo-hydrates. In finding the nutritive ratio of a food, 
then, the digestible fat, multiplied by 2.4, is added to the 
digestible carbo-hydrates, and this sum divided by the 
digestible albuminoids. 

If we take the above analysis of cow's milk, as an exam- 
ple (milk being in solution, it is all digestible), fat is 3.80, 
this multiplied by 2.4 gives 9.12, and this added to the 
milk sugar, 4.55, makes 13.67 as the carbo-hydrates of 
milk, and this divided by the caseine or albuminoids, 4.05 — 
the result is 3.37 as the nutritive ratio of milk, read 1 : 
3.37 — that is, milk has 1 of albuminoids to 3.37 of carbo- 
hydrates. 

The above table gives the digestible nutrients and the 
nutritive ratio of each of the foods named. It will be seen, 
that of all the foods in the table, oats, peas, beans, flax-seed, 
oil-cake, wheat-bran, rye-bran, millet and middlings come 
the nearest to milk in relative proportions of muscle- 
forming and heat and fat-producing elements. And if we 
examine, also, the mineral elements in these different foods 
which build up the frame, we shall also find flax-seed, oil- 
cake, peas, beans, oats and bran the richest in phosphate of 
lime and magnesia, and the other mineral elements neces- 
sary in the animal economy. Indian corn has only 2.1 per 
cent, of ash, and this not rich in phosphate of lime, etc. 
It has less of mineral constituents required by the growing 
animal than barley or oats — the former having 2.6 per cent. 
and the latter 3 per cent. We desire to direct attention to 
corn, as an improper food to be given, alone, to young 



143 FEEDING ANIMALS, 

animals. We have seen that it has 8. 6 of carbonaceous to 
1 of nitrogenous food, while milk has only 3.37 of carbona- 
ceous to 1 of nitrogenous. Corn is quite too heating and 
fattening, and too poor in muscle-forming and bone-build- 
ing food to be given alone to young animals — in fact, it is 
much better to discard it altogether in feeding animals 
under six months old. 

Milk, the natural food of the young, has a large propor- 
tion of oil, which prevents constipation and thus promotes 
health, besides its most important office of lubricating 
the joints, padding and cushioning the muscles. "When 
skimmed milk is substituted for full milk the animal is 
soon found to suffer from constipation, and this is often 
alternated with diarrhea. Here the skill of the feeder may 
restore the cream, removed as a delicacy in human food, by 
adding a cheaper oil to replace it in the skimmed milk. 
Our table shows flax-seed to contain 37 per cent, of oil, and 
this oil is found to be very digestible and agreeable to the 
animal stomach. A little flax-seed boiled to a jelly and 
stirred into this skimmed milk restores it so nearly to its 
original condition, that calves thrive and fatten upon it 
most satisfactorily. The oil in the flax-seed costs but a 
small fraction of the value of the cream removed. This is' 
an example of the principle of mixing foods complemen- 
tary to each other. Peas and beans are strong in albumi- 
noids and bone-building elements, but deficient in oil, are 
therefore constipating, and should have a little boiled flax- 
seed mixed with the ground meal. Wheat middlings are 
generally preferable to bran for the young, because contain- 
ing less indigestible woody fibre, it is less irritating to the 
stomach. The feeder should study the composition of 
foods, and learn to combine those of different qualities, so 
as to make a well-balanced ration. This skill enables him 
to utilize everything grown upon the farm, and thus add to 
his profits. 



STOCK FOODS. 143 



CHAPTER VI. 

STOCK FOODS. 

It seems proper to consider, preliminarily, the different 
foods which may profitably be used by the stock-feeder 
in the widely-varying conditions of soil and climate found 
in our country, stretching over twenty-five degrees of 
latitude and fifty-seven degrees of longitude. We do not 
profess to be able to describe all foods actually used over 
this immense territory, but we have endeavored to give 
as many of those foods, decided in practice to be valu- 
able, as possible, and especially all those that have been 
brought to the chemical test of analysis. Many new plants 
are constantly coming into jDrofitable use after experiment, 
and the list has been considerably enlarged during the last 
decade. The last twenty years have been remarkably fruit- 
ful in chemical researches, the laboratory being the leader 
of agricultural progress, esjoecially in Germany. The Ger- 
mans have studied the analysis and feeding-value of cattle 
foods more carefully, perhaps, than the agriculturists of 
any other country. Their numerous Experiment Stations 
have given them a great advantage in this respect, as these 
have joined science and practice together — worked out the 
actual results in feeding and compared them with the 
analysis. These experiments have not been carried far 
enough to determine food-values with absolute accuracy, 
but they are much in advance of our previous knowledge 
of the digestibility of foods. They have attempted to de- 
termine the money value, in the German market, of the 



144 FEEDING ANIMALa 

nutritive ingredients in some of the most important stock 
foods in that country. Most of these are also fed in this 
country, and their figures, although not determined for 
this country, will, at least, be interesting to our reader's. 
They figure the value of a food from the relative propor- 
tion of the three classes of digestible matters it contains; 
that is, the albuminoids, carbo-hydrates and fat. The 
Germans base the value of a food, not upon the act-ual 
amount of albuminoids, carbo-hydrates and fat it contains 
on analysis, but on the amount of each, digestible; and 
this is determined mostly by feeding experiments, but 
partly by calculation. It is considered highly important 
to know just the proportion that the digestible albumin- 
oids bear to the digestible carbo-hydrates — and this pro- 
portion is called the nutritive ratio. 

As we have seen in a previous chapter, the composition 
of animal bodies and vegetable bodies is the same. Every 
element in animal bodies must be contained in the food 
given. The albuminoids make the blood and tissues — the 
carbo-hydrates serve to keep up animal heat, a-nd the sur- 
plus goes to lay on fat. Animals require more of the one 
or the other according to age and condition — therefore a 
knowledge of the composition of the diiferent foods be- 
comes of the highest importance to the successful feeder. 

The investigations in Germany have stimulated American 
chemists to the analysis of American cattle foods, and within 
the last decade very many careful analyses of our wild and 
cultivated grasses and leguminous plants, as well as of our 
grains and waste products of their manufacture, have been 
made. 

Our Department of Agriculture has done much in this 
field during the last few years. Yet it is but just to say 
that the Connecticut Experiment Station lead off in the 
effort to acquaint our farmers with the German work in 
this field. 



STOCK FOODS. 145 

We will first give the careful work of our American 
chemists in the analysis of our cattle foods. The following 
table is the work of our painstaking chemist of the Depart- 
ment of Agriculture, Professor Peter Collier. 

In the investigation of our wild grasses it is the most 
extensive work that has been performed in this country. 
This table does not include all the analyses made of native 
grasses, but is intended to include all those of much value 
as agricultural plants. Some of these may prove of less 
value than supposed, and others left out may prove of more 
value than now believed. 

This table gives an interesting investigation into the 
chemical composition of grasses at different stages of 
growth, and will be imjjortant as a reference in the consid- 
eration of the proper time for cutting grasses as cattle 
food. 

7 



146 



FEEDING ANIMALS. 



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148 



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■DESCKIPTION" OF GRASSES. 149 

The foregoing table of analyses, by Prof. Collier, of our 
wild grasses, including many considered as troublesome 
weeds, is a most valuable contribution to the chemistry of 
cattle foods, and a few years more of equal industry, in this 
section of the Department of Agriculture, will leave but 
few of our known fodder plants unanalyzed. 

The great diversity of our soil and climate will often 
render a grass valuable in one section wliich is found of no 
economical value in another locality. Chemistry, by show- 
ing the proportion of nutritive constituents in a grass, 
which is found to grow good crops in any section of 
country, will enable any one to determine its economic 
value for cultivation in that locality. Every grass must be 
brought to a practical test in cultivation before its value 
can be determined for any locality, but a knowledge of its 
chemical analysis will give an experimenter confidence in 
the probable value of his labor. 

A large number of the grasses in this table seem to be 
specially adapted to the Southern States. We shall only 
glance at a few of them : 

Desjiodium — tick-seed, beggar-ticks — is a deep-rooted 
leguminous plant, which has attracted much attention in 
the South as a plant that may take the place of clover, in 
the rotation, on soil that will not sustain clover. It 
takes its name from the rough seed-pods, which adhere to 
clothing. Its analysis shows it to be fully equal, in the 
proportion of nitrogen and other nutritive constituents, to 
clover. The reports are that it flourishes even on the sand 
barrens of the Atlantic seaboard. It is found excellent as 
pasture and as hay — having an effect similar to clover when 
plowed under. It is annual. 

Japan Clover. — This is another leguminous forage 
plant, lately established in Southern States, and sup- 
posed to have been brought in tea-boxes from Japan or 



150 FEEDING AKIMALS. 

China. Said not to flourish north of 36"*; but grows 
strongly on soils supposed to be exhausted by cultivation, 
stands the severest droug^hts, its long tap root reaching 
moisture; is perennial and retains its foothold without 
re-seeding, is much relished by stock as pasture and as hay. 
This is also excellent for plowing under, but having less 
nitrogen than Desmoclium. 

Mexican" Clover. — This has been considered a trouole- 
some plant in cultivated fields in Florida, but has lately 
been found very valuable as a green soiling plant. It 
grows rapidly and is very succulent and relished green by 
all stock. It is grown by the orange planters among their 
groves as a shade and mulch in the hot season, cut and fed 
green to stock. It is so watery as to be difficult of curing 
into hay. The reports are that it produces much more 
forage than clover, growing moi?e than four feet high and 
thick set, and on soil too poor for clover. It appears to be 
a very valuable plant where it succeeds, and is likely to 
grow well along the whole seaboard of the gulf. It is a 
native of Mexico and South America. 

Satin Grass {Muhleniergia glomerata). — This grows in 
wet meadows, and is also found on sandy barrens in the 
Northern and "Western States. Its analysis shows it to be 
a valuable grass if it can be grown in respectable quantity. 
It is reported from Colorado and Kansas as an excellent 
grass for hay. Having a creeping root, it must produce a 
good strong sward for pasture. It has the largest propor- 
tion of nitrogen of any of the wild grasses analyzed. It 
certainly merits a thorough test. Another variety of this, 
M. Diffusa, drop-seed grass, has a reputation in Kentucky, 
Tennessee and North Carolina as a pasture grass. 

Shrader's Grass is found valuable for winter grazing. 
It grows early and is leafy, producing much pasturage. Its 
analysis shows it very nutritious. 



DESCRIPTION OF GRASSES. 151 

Bermuda Grass is a low, perennial creeping grass, with 
abundant short leaves at the base, but a slender, nearly 
leafless flower-stalk. It is the chief reliance for pasture in the 
South. Its creeping root renders it difficult to eradicate in 
cultivated fields. But, thriving in arid, barren drift-sands 
of the seashore, it is appreciated and prized as a great 
resource. It has the capacity to withstand great heat and 
drought, being green and fresh when blue grass is dried 
up. The analysis shows it to be very nutritious. It is not 
reproduced from seed, but sections of its roots covered 
shallow with the plow. 

The Crab Grasses {Panicum sanguinale, P. fiUiforme, 
P. proliferum, P. divaricatum, Eleusina Indica, etc.) are 
all found to thrive in the southern climate and to assist 
greatly in pasturage; and it will be seen by their analyses 
that they are well adapted to produce growth and flesh 
upon animals. 

Texas Millet {Panicum Texanum), is an annual grass, 
growing two to four feet high, very leafy, grows best in the 
hottest part of the season, and reported to make most ex- 
cellent hay. It is said in Texas to produce a larger crop 
than millet, and to be well liked by all stock. 

Quack Grass {Triticum repens), considered a most 
troublesome Aveed and a pest in cultivated fields, is seen in 
analysis to be a very nutritious grass, and, in hay, cattle 
are very fond of it. Its nutritive ratio shows it to be 
superior to timothy, and creeping roots attach it so strongly 
to the soil as to render it a success in all localities. "We 
have seen it so heavy in patches as to yield at the rate of 
two tons per acre. In a permanent pasture it is one of the 
most valuable grasses, and not at all objectionable in a 
meadow. It is impartial, spreading its virtues and vices 
over all soils and climates. 



153 FEEDING ANIMALS. 

Wire Grass — English Blue Grass (Poa compressa). — 
This grass is sometimes mistaken for Poa pratensis, June 
grass, but is easily distinguished from the latter by its 
shorter and flattened stalk, shorter leaves, shorter and 
narrower panicle, with fewer branches. It has a remark- 
ably solid stalk and produces a very heavy hay for its bulk. 
It does not produce a large crop, yielding, even on rich 
land, not more than 1% tons per acre; but it has a value, 
per weight, 15 per cent, more than timothy hay. It never 
kills out by freezing, and its creeping root makes it very 
desirable as a pasture grass. It affords early and late 
pasturage. Its analysis gives it a high position in the scale 
of nutritious grasses. 

Gama Grass. — This is a tall perennial grass, growing 
from three even to six feet high, with broad leaves, some- 
what like Indian corn. It is found native at the South, 
from the mountains to the coast. When cut before seed- 
heads appear, it is said to make a nutritious hay. It starts 
immediately after cutting, and affords three or four green 
crops in a season. Cattle and horses are fond of it cured 
into hay. The roots are very strong and run deep, which 
gives it vitality to stand drought. It must be a most 
valuable grass for soiling. 

Grama Grass {Bouteloua oligostachija). — This name is 
given to several species of Bouteloua found on the great plains 
on the eastern slope of the Eocky Mountains and the high 
table-lands of Tex^s. They are valuable grazing grasses. 
They grow in bunches with a mass of short leaves at the 
base. Its value is so great for the plains that efforts have 
been made to cultivate it on the moister lands of the sea- 
coast without success. 

We shall have occasion to refer to some other of these 
grasses in application to pasture, meadow and soiling. 



AKA.LTSES OF FJEEDING STUFFS. 



153 



Average Composition, Digestibility and Money Value of Feeding 
Stuffs, as given by Dr. Wolf for Germany, with a few Ameri- 
can Analyses. 



Kind of Fodder. 



Organic 

Substances. 



f^ 



6~ 



Digestible 

Nutrients, 



(Ox: 



Meadow hay, poor 

^Meadow hay, better 

jMeadow hay, medium 

Jleadow hay, very good 

Meadow hay, extra 

Red clover, poor 

Red clover, medium 

Red clover, very good 

Red clover, extra 

White clover, medium 

Clover hay, damasked by raiu . . . 

Hay of pure red clover 

Lucerne, medium 

Lucerne, very good 

Swedish clover; Alsike 

Hop clover 

Trefoil 

Seradella 

Fodder vetch, medium 

Fodder vetch, very good 

Peas, in bloom 

Lupine, medium 

Lupine, very good 

Fodder rye 

Timothy 

f Early meadow grass (Poa 

annua), in blossom 

Orchard grass, in blossom. . 
Sweet-scented vernal grass, 

in blossom 

Blue grass {Poa x>ratensis), 

in blossom 

Sheep fescue (Festuca ovina) 
Red top {Agrostis vulgaris), 

in blossom 

Meadow io-!iXa.\\(Alopeciiric8 
■{ -pratensis) , after blossom. 
Mea(iow soft grass (Tlolchus 

lanatus), very young 

Meadow soft grass, late 

bloom 

Fowl meadow grass {Poa 

seratina) 

Wire grass {Poa compressa) 

Wire grass, early bloom . . . 

Foxtail pigeon grass (Se- 

taria glauca), early flow- 

l ering 



14.3 
14.3 
14.3 
15.0 
16.0 
1.5.0 
16.0 
16.5 
16.5 
16.5 
14.5 
16.0 
16.0 
16.5 
16.0 
16.7 
16.7 
16.7 
16.7 
16.7 
16.7 
16.7 
16.7 
14.3 
14.3 

14.3 
14.3 

14.3 

14.3 



% 
7.5 
9.3 
9.7 
11.7 
13.5 



5.U1.1 



12.3 
13.5 
15.3 
14.5 
15.8 
13.4 
14.4 
16.0 
15.0 
14.6 
13.2 
13.5 
14.3 



6.4 
8.5 
9.45 

7.4 

14.3 
14.3 
5.3 



9.3,19.8 
7.014.3 
4.6!l7.1 
4.i;23.3 

5.1 0.4 
4.5 9.7 

2.4!10.1 
4.6,11.6 

5.4 8.9 

5.ll 8.9 
3.6, 8.8 

6.8110.3 



7.8 

11.2 

6.81 

8.8 
6.2 

12.7 



% 
33.5 
29.3 
36.3 
21.9 
19.3 
28.9 
36.0 
24.0 
22.2 
25.6 
52.7 
25.4 
33.0 
26.6 
37.0 
36.2 
30.4 
23.0 
35.5 
23.4 
25.3 
38.5 
25.2 
23.1 
23.7 

25.9 
28.9 

31.2 

32.6 
25.1 

20.6 

33.1 



% 
38.2 
39.7 
41.4 
41 6 
40.4 
37.7 
38.3 
37.1 
35.8 
33.9 
23.4 
36.4 
37.9 
31.6 
33.7 
.33.2 
32.6 
.35.6 
32.8 
28.5 
34.2 
30.9 
28.6 
44.5 
45.8 



% 
3.4 
4.6 
5.4 
7.4 
9.3 
5.7 
7.0 
8.5 
10.7 
8.1 



47.2|2.9 
40. 



40.23.9 



39.1 2.3 
57.1 3.6 



53.1 2.6 
49.63.2 



16.849.3 4.1 

23.1 51.33.6 

31.749.02.9 
17.8'56.42.4 
19.1 .52.74.0 



5.0 6.9 8.6 24 4153.413.5 8.5 53.4 2.5 6.4 0.70 



9.4 
13.3 
8.6 
9.3 
6.2 
8.5 
.9.4 
15.1 
9.4 
11.3 
17.2 
6.6 
5.8 

6.0 
6.9 

5.9 

5.9 



10.3 
7.8 

11.2 
6.8 

7.5 

5.37 
10.3 



% 
34.9 
36.4 
41.0 
41.7 
42.8 
37.9 
38.1 
38.2 
37.6 
35.9 



as 
1: 

10.6 0.48 
8.3 0..^5 

8.0 0.64 

6.1 0.75 
5.1|0.85 
7.1 0.59 
5.9|0.70 
5.0|0.79 
4.00.89 
5.0!0.76 



28.3 
31.4 
34.8 
.36.4 
34.9 
36.3 
33.5 
31.1 
33.1 
37.3 
36.0 
44.3 



43.411.4 

43.5:2.1 
40.3 1.9 

40.1 2.1 



40.0|1.6 
57.1,3.6 

53.12.6 

49.G3.3 

49.3 4.1 

51.33.6 

49.0 2.9 

.56.4 2.4 



3.3'0.71 
3.80.86 
4.60.76 
4.50.81 
6.20.64 
5.1 0.81 
3.90.77 
2.3,0.99 
4.0!0.77 
3.40.86 
2.211.10 
7.2i0.72 
8.110.70 

7.90.74 
6.5|0.74 

7.6 0.70 



0.08 
0.85 

0.83 

0.62 

0.85 



8.10.73 



6.90.69 

10.9 0.66 



52.74.0 4.5,0.83 



154 FEEDING ANIMALS. 

Average Composition, etc., of Feeding Stuffs— CcmMnited. 



Kind op Fodder. 



f Barnyard grass (Panicum 

I crusgalli) 

Beniuula grass {Gynodon 

I dactylon) 

J Quack grass (Triiicum re- 

pens) 

Gaina grass (Tripsaoum 

dactyloides) 

Grama grass (Bouteloua 
« L oligostachya) 

f Timothy 

(.; Timothy and red top. . . . 
tg I Timothy and blue grass. 
rt J Mi.xed grasses, including 

.2 I above two 

g I Containing clover 

5 I Low meadow hay 

[ Salt marsh hay 

Italian rye grass 

English rye grass 

French rye grass 

Upland grasses, average 

Hungarian grass 

Hungarian grass, mature samples 

lirown liay of clover 

Brown hay of grasses 

Brown hay of maize 

Brown hay of esparsette 



GKEEN FODDER. 

Grass, j ust before bloom 

iPasture grass 

Rich pasture grass 

Italian rye grass , 

English rye grass ■:'. 

Timothy grass 

Upland grasses, average 

Maize fodder 

Green Maize, german 

Spurry, Speryula arvensis 

White mustard 

Parsnip leaves 

Sweet clover 

Green leaves, of trees 

Fodder rye 

Fodder oats 

Sorghum 

Hungarian, in blossom 

Pasture clover, young 

Ked clover, before blossom . . 



14.3 

14.3 

14.3 

14.3 
13.5 
14.3 
14.3 

14.3 
14.3 
10.0 
10.7 
14.3 
14.3 
14.3 
14.3 
13.4 
16.7 
14.0 
14.3 
9.3 
52.5 



75.0 
80.0 
78.2 

3.4 
TO.O 
70.0 

0.0 
84.0 
83.0 
79.2 
87.4 
83.1 
87.4 
61.1 

■6.0 
81.0 

7.3 
75.0 
83.0 
83.0 



Organic 

Substances. 



7.8 
10.7 
11.4 

8.6 



6.7' 8.6 

3.9 6.2 

5.5 7.6 

4.7 7.0 



24.7 

20.2 

16.6 

22.7 

19 4 
28.9 
26.5 
26.9 



46.4 

46.0 

48.2 

48.2 

49.5 
45.8 
44.1 
45 



26.7 44 
24.143 
30.843, 
31.9 41. 
22.9 40 
30.2 36, 
29.4 32. 
38.739, 
29.4 38. 



28.1 
25.4 
22.4 
7.0 
15.4 



13.1 
9.7 
10.1 
12.1 
12.8 
10.3 
13.4 
8.4 
9.3 



0.8 

0.8 

1.0 

1.0 

1.0 

1.1 

1.0 

0.50 

0.5 

0.70 



Digestible 
Nutrients. 



3.5 

9.9 

3.5 

15.21.5 

10.40.8 

8. 3^0. 5 

11.710.7 

,5il0.9:0.7 

,8 7.20.9 

,5l 7.0I0.7 



a 

a 
.0 

_^ 
~% 
6.7 
9.16 
9.8 
7.4 
7.3 



1.9 
1.3 
1.6 
1.8 
3.6 
2.3 






Y 

46.4 
46.0 
48.2 
48.2 
49.5 



41..'. 
35. S 
33.1 0.8 
40.9 1.1 
41.(10.9 



13.0 
9.9 
10.9 
12.6 
13.2 
16.0 
14.2 



8.4 



11.0 
8.9 
11.9 
11.8 
7.4 
7.4 



0.2 



as 
1 : 

7.20.65 

5.20.71 

5.20.76 



8.9 



0.65 
0.69 



0.74 
0.57 
0.57 
0.64 
0.66 



0.22 
0.21 
0.27 
0.23 
30 
0.28 
0.23 



0.13 



6.3 0.20 
7.20.15 
7.40.19 
7.00.20 
2.50.25 
3.8|0.19 



AJSTALTSES OF FEEDING STUFFS. 155 

AvBEAQE Composition, etc., of Feeding Sttjffs— Continued. 





1 


.a 

< 


Obganic 
Substances. 


Digestible 
Nutrients. 


6 

"S 

o 

> 

a 

iz; 

as 
1: 
5.7 
4.2 

3.2 

4.1 
5.5 
4.6 
5.6 

2.3 

3.8 




Kind of Fodder. 


o 

.a 

s 

3 
.Q 

< 




6 

■° m 

o 


1 


o 

a 

S 
a 


B ^ 

" .3 
.a'5 
62 
•? S 

o 


P=4 


8 
s 

a) 

a 

I 


Red clover, in full blossom 

White clover, in blossom 

Swedish clover, at beginning ol 


% 

80.4 
80.5 

85.0 
80.0 
81.5 
80.0 
80.0 
82.0 
79.0 
85.0 
85.0 

37.3 

82.0 
81.5 
85.0 
87.0 
84.7 
89.0 
83.0 
78.0 
83.2 
90.5 
88.4 
85.0 
80.0 
8.3.5 
79.9 
80.0 
77.0 
79.2 

14.3 
14.3 
14.3 
14.3 
14.3 
14.3 
14.3 
14.3 
14.3 
14.3 
14.3 
18.0 
16.0 
16.0 
16.0 


% 

1.3 

3.0 

1.5 
1.5 
1.6 
1.5 
1.8 
1.6 
1.5 
0.7 
0.7 

1.0 

1.8 
1.5 
1.4 
1.6 
1.6 
1.2 
1.9 
3.0 
3.6 
1.8 
2.3 
1.8 
2.7 
1.1 
2.9 
4.1 
5.3 
2.1 

4.6 
5.2 
4.1 
5.5 
4.1 
6.7 
4.0 
4.1 
6.7 
4.8 
5.3 
4.5 
4.5 
4.6 
4.5 


% 

3.0 
3.5 

3.3 
3.2 
2.7 
3.5 
3.0 
2.8 
3.5 
3.1 
4.2 

2.8 

3.5 
3.2 
2.4 
2.9 
3.5 
1.5 
1.1 
2.3 
3.2 
1.9 
2.1 
2.8 
3.3 
1.2 
3.1 
3.0 
2.9 
4.2 

3.0 
2.3 
3.0 
3 3 
3.5 
6 5 
4.0 
3.8 
6.9 
3.0 
4.5 
7.5 
6.5 
10.2 


% 

5.8 
6.0 

4.5 
6.5 
6.2 
6.0 
5.2 
6.2 
6.9 
5.1 
4.5 

3.5 

5.5 
5.G 
4.2 
4.2 
2.4 
2.0 
2.8 
6.0 
3.0 
1.3 
1.6 
1.4 
3.4 
5.3 
6.8 
2.7 
4.7 
5.9 

40.0 
46. 5 
44.0 
43.0 
40.0 
38.0 
39.5 
39.7 
36.7 
42.0 
57.8 
43.0 
38.0 
34 


% 

8.9 
7.2 

5.1 

8.2 
7.3 
8.2 
8.9 
6.7 
8.2 
5.7 
5.2 

5.1 

6.6 
7.6 
6.4 
3.7 
8.1 
5.9 
11.9 
9.7 
7.1 
4.0 
5.2 
8.2 
9.8 
8.9 
6.5 
9.0 
7.5 
6.4 

36.9 
30.8 
33.3 
32.5 
36.7 
33.5 
36.2 
36.4 
32.9 
34.9 
3(3.7 
29.0 
34.0 
34.2 
32.4 


% 
0.6 
0.8 

0.6 

0.6 

0.7 

0.8 

1.1 

0.70 

0.85 

0.4 

0.4 

0.3 

0.6 
0.6 
0.6 
0.6 
7 
0.4 
0.3 
1.0 
1.0 
0.5 
0.5 
0.8 
0.8 
0.9 
0.8 
1.2 
2.6 
3.2 

1.2 

1.45 

1.3 

1.4 

1.4 

2.0 

2.0 

1.7 

3.5 

1.3 

1.4 

1.0 

1.0 

1.0 

1.0 


% 

1.7 

3.2 

2.1 
2.1 
1.5 
2.2 
1.9 

'k'.b 

3.1 

2.0 

2.5 
2.3 
1.5 
2.0 
1.8 
1.1 
0.8 
1.0 
2.2 
1.2 
1.5 
2.0 
3.0 
0.8 
3.4 
2.0 
1.2 
2.8 

0.8 
0.7 
0.8 
0.8 
1.3 
3.3 
1.4 
1.4 
2.5 
0.8 
1.2 
3.4 
2.9 
5.0 
3.8 


% 

8.7 

7.9 

5.8 
8.0 
7.5 
8.7 
8.9 

'h'.''! 
6.5 

5.2 

6.7 
7.4 
6.6 
4.8 
8.2 
6.0 
11.5 
8.3 
7.0 
4.0 
5.1 
7.6 
9.4 
8.6 
7.0 
6.3 
6.2 
7.2 

35.6 
.36.5 
36.5 
31.4 
40.6 
38.8 
10.1 
40.4 
36.9 
36.0 
34.3 
31.9 
33.4 
35.2 
33.5 


0.4 
0.5 

0.4 
0.3 
0.3 
0.5 
0.7 

'b'.k 

0.2 

0.2 

0.3 
0.3 
0.4 
0.4 
0.4 
0.3 
0.3 
0.3 
0.5 
0.2 
0.3 
0.4 
0.4 
0.4 
0.3 
0.7 
1.3 
1.7 

0.4 
0.4 
0.4 
0.4 
0.5 
0.9 
0,6 
0.7 
0.8 
0.4 
0.4 
0.5 
0.5 
0.5 
0.5 


0.17 
0.19 

17 


Esparsette 


IS 


Trefoil 


1.-1 




(1 IS 


Seradella 


0.J8 


Medich, Medicago lupulina — 


6' in 


Lupine, very good 

Field beans, at beginning of 


0.20 

14 


Fodder vetch, at beginning of 


3.00.18 


Fodder peas, in blossom 

Buckwheat, in blossom 

Green rape 

Fodder cabbage 

White cabbage 


3.7[0.]8 
5.1I0.14 
2.9'0.15 
5.30.17 
5.8 0.11 
15 15 


Potato tops, October 

Carrot Iqaves 

Fodder beet leaves 


9.00.13 
3.80.18 
3.710.10 
3.9I0.I2 


Kolil-rabi leaves 


4.3 17 


Artichoke tops 


5.2 
12.0 
3.2 
4.0 
8.0 
4.1 

45.8 
53.0 
46.9 
40.5 
32.2 
12.4 
29.9 
31.0 
15.5 
16.3 
29.4 
9.8 
13.0 
7.3 
9.7 


19 


Fermented hay from maize 

Fermented hay from lupine 

Fermented hay from beet leaves 
Fermented hay from potato tops 
Fermented hay from red clover 

STBAW. 

Winter wheat straw 


).13 
).15 
).17 
1.16 
0.26 

37 


Winter spelt straw 

Winter rye straw 

Winter barley straw 


0.37 
0.35 
33 


Sununor barley 

Bailey straw, with clover 

Oat straw. . , ._ 

Summer grain straws, medium. 
Summer grain straws, very good 
Winter grain straws, medium . . 
Winter grain straws, very good 
Fodder vetch 


0.44 
0.53 
J. 45 
0.45 
0.47 
0.37 
0.37 

n 46 


Pea 

Field bean 


1.44 
'S'i 


Straw of legumes, medium 


8.1 38.6 


0.18 



156 FEEDING ANIMALS. 

Average Composition, etc., of Feedin» Stvwfb— Continued. 









Oeganic 


Digestible 












Sdbstanobs. 


Nutrients. 






Kasm OF Foddbb. 










i. 




!2 


IT. ^ 




o' 


O 




1 


< 


o 

a 

a 

3 
< 

Y 


<D 

s 
Y 


11 

o 


i 
% 


'o 

a 

B 


"^1 

a" 
Y 


1 
% 


to 
> 

s 

as 
1 : 


u 

IS 

p. 
<& 

3 




% 


Y 


$ 


Straw of legumes, very good. . . 


16.0 


5.1 


10.2 


34.5 


33.2 


1.0 


5,0 


34,6 


0.6 


7,2 


0.55 


Lentils 


16.0 


6.5 


14.0 


33.6 


27.9 


2.0 


6,9 


30,8 


1.2 


4.7 


0.63 


Lupine straw 


16.0 


4.1 


5.9 


40.8 


33,1 


1.1 


2.2 


41.6 


0.3 


19.4 


0^48 


Seed clover 


16 


5.6 


9.4 


42,0 


35,0 


2.0 


4.2 


28.5 


1.0 


7.4 


0,49 


Rape 


16.0 
13.1 


4.1 
5.2 


3.5 

4.1 


40.0 
44.3 


35.4 
33.9 


1.0 
1.4 


1.4 
1.4 


35,0 
36.0 


0.5 
0.4 


25.9 
26.4 


0,39 
0.40 


Buckwheat straw 


Corn stalks 


15.0 


4.2 


3.0 


40.0 


36.7 


1.0 


1,1 


37.0 


0.3 


34.4 


0.39 


CHAFF AND HULM. 
























Wheat 


14.3 


9,2 


4.3 


36.0 


34.6 


1.4 


1.4 


33.8 


0.4 


24.1 


0.37 


Rye.... 




14.3 


7.5 


3.6 


43.5 


39.9 


1.2 


1.1 


34.9 


0.4 


32.6 


0.37 


Oats . . . 




14.3 


10.0 


4.0 


34.0 


36.3 


1.5 


1.6 


36 6 


0.6 


23.8 


0,39 


Barley . 




14.3 


13.0 


3.0 


30.0 


38,2 


1.5 


1.2 


35.0 


0.6 


30.4 


0.38 


Vetch.. 




15.0 


8.0 


8.5 


33.0 


33.5 


2.0 


4.2 


34.3 


1,2 


8,9 


0,54 


Pea.... 




15.0 


6.0 


8.1 


33.0 


36.9 


2.0 


4.0 


36.2 


1 2 


9.8 


0.55 


Bean... 




15.0 


5.5 


10.5 


33.0 


34.0 


2.0 


5.1 


31.7 


1,2 


7.4 


0.53 


Lupine 




14.3 


3.5 


4.5 


37.0 


39.0 


1.7 


1.7 


44,2 


0.5 


26.7 


0.49 


Flax... 




11.2 


7.2 


2.7 


45 2 


32.6 


1.1 


0.7 


36.8 


0.4 


53,8 


0.38 


Rape .. 




14.0 


8.5 


4.0 


40.6 


31.3 


1.6 


2.0 


33.4 


0.7 


17.2 


0.41 


White clover 


11.5 


7.9 


18.3 


22.4 


36.8 


3.1 


10.7 


34.8 


1.5 


3.6 


0.84 


Corncobs 


14.0 


3.8 


1.4 


37.8 


42.6 


1.4 


0.6 


41.7 


0.4 


71.2 


0.41 


BOOTS AND TUBBBS. 
























Potatoes 


75.0 


0.9 


2.1 


1.1 


20.7 


0.2 


3.1 


21.8 


0.2 


10.6 


0.29 


Artichokes 


80.0 


1.0 


2.0 


1.3 


15.5 


0.2 


2.0 


16.8 


0.3 


8.7 


0,24 


Fodder beets 


38.0 


0.8 


1.1 


0.9 


9.1 


0.1 


1.1 


10.0 


0.1 


9.3 


0.14 


Sugar beets 


81.5 


0.7 


1.0 


1.3 


15.4 


0.1 


1.0 


16,7 


0.1 


17.0 


0.19 


Rutabagas 


87.0 


1.0 


1.3 


1.1 


9.5 


0.1 


1.3 


10,6 


0.1 


8,3 


0.15 




84.6 


2.8 


1.4 


2.3 


8.8 


0.1 












Carrots 


85.0 


0.9 


1.4 


1.7 


10,8 


0.2 


'lA 


12^5 


6.2 


"'i.Z 


6!i8 


Giantcarrots 


87.0 


0.8 


1.2 


1.2 


9,6 


0.2 


1,2 


10,8 


0.2 


9,4 


0.16 


Turnips 


93,0 


o.'; 


1.1 


0.8 


5.3 


0,1 


1.1 


6,1 


0,1 


5,8 


0,16 


Parsnips 


88.3 


0.7 


1.6 


1.0 


10,2 


0,2 


1.6 


11.2 


0,2 


7.3 


0.18 


Sweet potato 


69.7 


1.1 


1.9 


1.7 


36. 3 


0.3 


0.9 


28.0 


0.3 


31.9 


0.30 




71.2 


0.6 


2.1 


0,7 


35.2 


0.2 


2.1 


25.9 


0.2 


12.5 


0.33 


GRAINS AND PBUITS. 
























Wheat 


14.4 


1.7 


13.0 


3.0 


66.4 


1.5 


11.7 


64.3 


1.2 


5.8 


1.13 


Rye 


14.3 


1.8 


11,0 


3.5 


67.4 


2.0 


9.9 


65.4 


1.6 


7.0 


1.08 


Winter rye, American 


8.7 


1.8 


12.1 


1.4 


73.9 


2.1 


10.8 


70,3 


1.6 


6 8 


1.16 


Barley 


14.3 


2.2 


10,0 


7.1 


63.9 


3.5 


8.0 


58,9 


1.7 


7,9 


0,95 


Oats 


14.3 


2.7 


12.0 


9.3 


55.7 


6.0 


9.0 


43.3 


4,7 


6,1 


0,98 


Maize 


14.4 


1,5 


10.0 


5.5 


62 1 


6,5 


8.4 


60,6 


4.8 


8,6 


1 11 


Millet 


14.0 


3.0 


12.7 


9.5 


57,5 


3.3 


9.5 


45,0 


2.6 


5,4 


0.93 




13.4 


2.8 


9,0 


11.6 


58.6 


4.0 


7.2 


47.0 


3.1 


7,5 


0,87 


Buckwheat 


14.0 


1.8 


9.0 


15.0 


58,7 


1.5 


6,8 


47.0 


1.2 


7.4 


0,77 




14.0 


0.5 


7.7 


2.2 


75,2 


0.4 


6,9 


72.7 


0.3 


10,7 


0,90 


Peas 


14.3 


2.4 


32.4 


6.4 


52,5 


2.0 


20,2 


54,4 


1.7 


2,9 


1,44 


Field bean 


14.5 


3.1 


25.5 


9.4 


45.9 


1,6 


23.0 


50.2 


1.4 


2.3 


1.51 


Vetch 


14.3 


2.7 


37.5 


6.7 


45.8 


3.0 


24,8 


48.2 


2.5 


2 2 


1.63 



AN^ALTSES OF FEEDING STUFFS. 157 

Average Composition, etc., of Feeding Stuffs — Continued. 



Kind of Fodder. 



fe: 



Organic 

Substances. 



^ 



fq 



Digestible 

Nutrients. 



■Sets 

i: '^ 

^ a 



Lentil 

Lupine, yellow 

Lupine, blue 

Cow peas, American 

Spurry 

Senadella 

Flax-seed 

Rape-seed 

Hemp-seed 

Poppy-seed 

Sunflower-seed 

Cotton-seed . . 

Palm-seed 

Chinese oil bean. . 

Acorns, fresh 

Acorns, half dried 
Acorns, shelled and dried 

Chestnuts, fresh 

Horse-chestnuts, with shell fresh 
Horse-chestnuts, with shell dry 

Apples and pears 

Cow melons 

Pumpkins 

Squash, fresh American 

Squash rind, American 

Squash seeds and stringy parts, 
American 

by-products. 
Coarse wheat briin. . . 
"Wheat middlings — 
St. Louis ship stuffs 

Rye bran 

Buckwheat bran 

Pea-meal bran 

Pea bran, hulls 

Pea-meal 

Millet bran 

Barley bran .... 

Poppy-seed cake .... 

Hemp-seed cake 

Walnut cake 

Olive oil cake 

Sunflower cake 

Pumpkin-seed cake . 

Sugar-beet cake 

Residue, centrifugal process 

Clarifying refuse, fresh 

Clarifying refuse, fermented 



% 
14.5 
13.3 
13.2 
20.0 

8.7 

8.7 
12.3 
11.8 
12.2 
14.7 

8.0 

7^6 
6.9 
55.3 
37.7 
17.0 
49.2 
49.2 
18.8 
83.1 
91.4 
1 
1 
82.0 

74.1 



11.4 
11.8 
11.8 
12.9 
14.0 
12.3 
12.3 
11.4 

9.5 
12.0 
11.5 

9.9 
13.7 
13.8 
10.3 
12.0 
70.0 
82.0 
94.8 
92.0 



% 

3.0 

3.8 

3.2 

3.1 

2.4 

3.4 

3.4 

3.9 

4.5 

5.3| 

3.0 

7.8 

1.8 

4.6 

1.0 

1.6 

2.0 

1.6 

1.2 

1.8 

0.4 

0.7 

1.0 

0.7 

1.2 

1.4 



% 
23.8 
36.2 
24.8 
21.6 
18.0 
22.0 
30.5 
19.4 
16.3 
17.5 
13.0 
22.8 
8.4 
38.3 
2.5 
3.5 
5.1 
4.3 
6.4 
6.9 
0.4 
1.2 
0.6 
0.9 
2.8 

5.3 



6.9 
13.8 
12.5 
4.7 
5.7 
21.1 
7.2 
10.3 
12.1 
6.1 
28.5 
16.0 
6.0 
5.3 
4.4 
7.8 
4.5 
2.0 
2.9 
4.0 
4.3 
1.5 
2.7 
1.0 
3.2 

4.3 



% 
49.2 
28.0 
41 

49.3 
53 
37.5 
19.6 
12.1 
21.3 
15.4 
23.9 
15.4 
26.8 
26.2 
34.8 
46 6 
67.4 
41.3 
38.9 
65.3 
11.8 
5 2 
6.5 
9.1 
10.1 

8.6 



% 

2.6 

4.9 

4.6 

1.3 

11.5 

7.3 

37.0 

42.5 

33.6 

41.0 

23.6 

30.3 

49 

18.7 

1 

2.8 
4.0 
1.6 
1.4 
3.2 



% 
21.4 
34.4 
23.6 
19.4 
16 

19.8 
17.2 
15.5 
12.2 
17.2 
10.4 
17.1 
8.0 
34.5 
2.0 
2.8 
4.1 
3.4 



12.9 
11.4 
11.1 
12.6 
17.1 
13.1 
8.0 
23.7 



6.5 

14.8 

31.9 

29.8 

34.6 

6.0 

37.3 

55.6 

1.8 

1.0 

0.5 

0.8 



59.1 
66.8 
66.5 
67.0 
46.4 
37.8 
30.5 
54.5 
14.4 
45.6 
25.8 
23.3 
27 8 
26.8 
26.0 
8.0 
18.3 
12.1 
3.3 
4 8 



3.5 



10.0 

8.9 

8.7 

2 10.6 

4 13.5 

5| 9.2 

51 5.6 

520.9 

5l 4.5 

11.5 

26.8 

■,'0.9 

31.1 

3.6 

31.3 

50.0 

1.8 

1.0 

0.5 

0.8 



% 
51.2 
41.8 
54 2 
49.6 
54.6 
47.0 
18.9 
10.2 
16 

15.3 
24.6 
1A.7 
31.2 
28.3 
30.9 
41.9 
59.7 
35.7 



2.2 

4.9 

4.6 

1.1 

9.7 

7.3 

35.2 

40.4 

30.2 

39.0 

21.2 

27.3 

48.2 

18.1 

1.5 

2.2 

3.2 

1.3 



as 
1: 

2.6 1.49 
1.62.00 
2.8 1.72 

2.7 1.33 

4.8 1.61 
3.2 1.ti0 

2.47 
2.55 
2.01 
2.50 
1.59 
2.08 
2 75 
2.56 
0.43 
0.59 
0.85 
0.52 



7.2 
4.6 
18.3 
2.1 
18.2 
17.0 
16.5 
11.5 



12.9 
5.6 
7.1 
9.0 

10.6 



10.3 5.6 



43.0 
6.2 

18.4 
15.8 
6.3 

6.4 



3.1 

2.6 
2.5 
2.0 
3.9 
1.2 
2.0 
2.8 
2.7 
3.6 
7 4 
5.2 
11.2 
10.6 
7.6 
10.3 
0.2 
0.1 
0.1 
0.1 



5.6 



0.13 
0.09 
0.08 
0.11 
0.20 

0.49 



1.01 

1.00 

0.97 

1.00 

1.15 

0.86 

0.74 

1..53 

0.66 

1.04 

1.73 

1..30 

2.11 

0.91 

1.93 

7i2.74 

90.30 

OjO.19 

1 0.06 

310.10 



158 FEEDING ANIMALS. 

Average Composition, etc., of Feeding Sivffs— Continued. 



Kind of Foddeb. 



Clarifying refuse, pressed and 
fermented 

Sugar-beet molasses 

Molasses slump 

Potato refuse in starch manu- 
facturing 

Eye refuse in starch manufac'ing 

Wheat refuse in starch manuf'g 



86.3 
17.2 
92.0 

86.0 

ro.o 

4.0 



Corn bran |12.0 



Corn sugar, or starch meal. . . 
Corn slump, or distillery refuse 

Brewers' grains 

Malt sprouts 

Green malt, with sprouts 

Ground malt, with sprouts 

Wheat meal.... 

Kice meal 

Rice bran, hulls 

Rape cake 

Rape meal, extracted 

Beech-nut cake 

Beech nuts, shelled . 

Almond cake 

Chinese oil-bean cake. 

Palm-nut cake 

Palm-nut cake, American 

Palm-nut cake, e.xtracted 

Cocoanut cake 

Barley middlings 

Oat bian 

Linseed cake 

Linseed meal, extracted. 

Cotton-seed meal, decorticated. 
Cotton-seedcake, undecorticated 

SLAUGHTEB-HOUSE WASTE. 

Dried blood 

Meat scrap 

Ground dried flesh. . 

Fish scrap 

Cows' milk 

Skimmed milk 

Buttermilk 

Condensed milk. . . , . 

Whey 

Cream = ■ . , . 



72.2 
90.6 
75.2 
11.6 
47.5 
7.5 
11.5 
9.9 
9.5 
11.3 
8.5 
16.1 
12.5 
9.7 
13.4 
10.5 
7.9 
10.5 
9.4 
12.. 3 
9.7 
9.1 
9 7 
7.2' 
11.3 



7.2 
4.2 
8.3 
12.5 
87.5 



I9O.O 
|90.1 
21.5 
92.6 
62.0 



0.9 
10.3 
1.6 



Organic 
Substances. 



0.4| 
0.8' 6, 
0.6 
2 3 



0.1 

0.4 

0.3 

6.7 

1.7 

2.3 

3.0 

10.6110 
12.0 6 

7.131 

7.9 33 



5.2 18 
7.7 37 

4.3 41 
5.2 40 
4.2 16 
4.0 13 
4.018 
5.2I20 
6.211 
3.7 7 

8.2 32 

7.3 33 
5.841 

6.4 23 



63.0 

47.3 

64.4 

49.6 

3.2 

3.5 

3.0 

10.2 

1.0 

2.7 



SI'S 



.9 
64.5 
4.6 



2.0111. 

2.7il8. 
3.4 15. 
2.5'61. 
3.4 18. 



1.0 5 
3.9 13, 
9.3 45, 
4.3 38 

8.7 69 
4.8163. 
1.147. 
25.1;44, 
11.0;29. 



13.4 
23.9 

5.5 

8.9 

5.5 
17.4 
18. S 
20.2 
14 2 
14.3 
19.3 

7.3 

8.8|38 

3.1J24 
22.0 30, 



Digestible 
Nutrients. 



0.3 1.5 

8.0 
1.8 



0.1 

1.5 

2.2 

4.0 

2.0 

1.0 

1.5 

1.120 

1.5 5 

2.3 7 

3.3!l0 

9.9 

3.3! 4 

9.625 

3.026 

8.3 13 

7.5 



15.2 

7.5 

10.0 

14.8 

3.3 

12.5 

3.6 

2.3 

5 11.6 

7 2.3 

4118.0 

5 6.1 



5.0 
5.0 
5.4 
52.9 
5.1 
2.9 



J- -a 
Ot5 



11.0 
64.5 
4.6 



13.7 
18.1 
15.1 
55.0 
19.3 
5.4 
11.3 
43.7 
36.9 
67.2 
54.8 
47.2 
42.8 
23.8 
27.2 
22.2 
25.5 
23.0 
20.4 
55.4 
56.2 
60.4 
47 4 
47.0 
49.8 
.0 
8 33.9 
2 17.6 
5 14.9 



6.4 42.2 
2.145.0 

6.5 64.1 
9.5:44.6 

3.6 3.2 
0.7 3.5 
1.0, 3.0 

12.9 10.2 
'0.6 1.0 
31.8 2.7 



0.3 



0.1 
1.2 
1.8 
3.6 
1.8 
0.8 
1.2 
0.9 
1.2 
1.8 
2.9 
8.8 
2.3 
7.7 
2.4 
6.6 
6.8 

13.7 
6.8 
9.5, 

14.0 
3.1 

11.2 
3.2 
2.0 

10.4 
2.1 

16.2 
5.5 



17.4 
4.1 
5.3 

10.3 
7.4 
4.6 
3.0 
2.2 
7.7 
9.4 
5.7 
8.0 

11.5 
1.7 
1.3 



0.18 
0.92 
0.12 



0.16 
0.44 
0.37 
0.92 
0.39 
0.15 
0..36 
1.33 
0.60 
1.00 
1.08 
1.16 
0.66 
1.66 
1.51 
1.08 
1.4 1.90 
1.6 2.44 



5.7 
2.0 
6.0 
8.6 
3.6 4 
0.7i 1 
1.0' 2 

12. 9i 8 
0.6; 6 

31.8:30. 



2.15 
1.61 
1.66 
1.44 
1.69 
0.93 
0.77 
1.89 
1.61 
2.30 
1.14 



.3 

.1 2.03 
.2 3.04 
.5 2. .30 
.4 0.34 
,9 0.23 
.60.22 
.31.48 
60.11 
51.54 



food tables. 159 

Comments on the Tables. 

In the last set of the foregoing tables it is easy to com- 
pare the value of every food given with average meadow 
hay — the value of which is figured at 64 cents for 100 lbs., 
and the value of each food figured on the same basis will 
show th-e comparison above or below meadow hay. 

Dr. Wolff estimates the value of a food in Germany on 
the basis of 43^ cents for each pound of digestible albu- 
minoids, and the same per pound for digestible fat, and .9 
cent per pound for the digestible carbo-hydrates. These 
tables represent nearly all the important cattle foods, ex- 
cept a few grasses which have not been analyzed. A care- 
ful study of these tables will give the reader a pretty cor- 
rect knowledge of the constituents in our cattle foods, of 
what is digestible and indigestible. The nutritive ratio, it 
will be seen, differs very much in some classes of foods, 
depending upon the condition. For example, the poorest 
meadow hay has only 1 of albuminoids to 10.6 of carbo- 
hydrates, whilst the best meadow hay has 1 of muscle- 
forming food to 5.1 of heat or fat-forming food. This, as 
will be seen by the " money- value," nearly doubles the 
feeding- value of meadow hay. Animals kept on the former 
would only be able to keep in store condition, without per- 
ceptible growth, whilst the latter would keep them grow- 
ing steadily. It will be noted that the nutritive ratio in 
oat-straw is 1:29.9, and this is considered our best straw. 
Eye-straw is still poorer in digestible albuminoids, the ratio 
being 1:46.9. This very low nutritive ratio is occasioned 
by the fact that only 26 per cent, qf the albuminoids in 
rye-straw is digestible, whilst an average of 48 per cent, 
of the fibre and carbo-hydrates is digestible. It is quite 
possible that Dr. Wolff has placed the digestibility of the 
albuminoids in rye and oat-straw quite too low. The sam- 
ples experimented with may have been inferior. But those 



160 FEEDIN"G AKIMALS. 

who have fed rje-straw know that neither horses, cattle nor 
sheep manifest any anxiety to eat it. Its fibre is exceed- 
ingly tongh, making better paper than any other straw; 
and tliis is undoubtedly the best use to make of it, when 
there is a demand at paper-mills. Yet Pennsylvania farm- 
ers of the olden type, who were wont to have sleek, well- 
rounded team-horses, kept them largely upon the grain of 
rye, ground into meal and fed upon chopped rye-straw. It 
certainly would furnish an excellent divisor to separate the 
meal and carry it in a loose, porous condition into the 
stomach, giving the gastric juice an easy circulation and 
full effect in digestion. The feeders of large numbers of 
street- railroad horses, in New York City, for a similar 
reason, select ripe timothy hay, alleging that it keeps the 
animals in better health when fed largely upon grain. 

Wheat-straw and barley-straw, contained in the tables, 
have a composition, chemically, the former very similar to 
that of rye-straw — but the fibre is less tough, and conse- 
quently a larger percentage of albuminoids and carbo- 
hydrates is digestible — whilst barley-straw is quite equal to 
oat-straw, and may be fed to good advantage in connection 
with grain. 

In order that the reader may make an easy comparison 
between some of the most common kinds of food for cattle, 
we will give the chemical composition, digestibility, 
and money-value, according to the German standard, for 
2,000 lbs. — or an American ton — of clover-hay, meadow- 
hay, corn-fodder, oat-straw, oil-cake, wheat-bran, corn-meal 
and oats. These foods are used more in the United States 
than any like number of others. They are also comple- 
mentary to each other: 



TABLE OF VALUES. 



161 





i 

a 

l-H 


<D 

.■2 

a 

M 

5 


In 2,000 lbs. 


6 
a 

§ 


Clover Hat. 
Albuminoids 


15.3 
35.8? 
22.2 i 
3.2 


10.7 
37.6 
2.1 


214 lbs. 

752 " 
42 " 


$9.24 


Carbo-hydrates 


Crude fibre 

Fat ,. 


6.76 

1.82 








1008 " 


17.82 


Average Meadow Hat. 


9.7 
41.6) 
21.95 

2.5 


5.4 

41.0 
1.0 


108 " 

820 " 

20 " 


4.68 


Carbo-hydrates 




Crude fibre 


7.38 


Fat 


.87 








948 " 


13.93 


Corn Fodder. 


4.4 
37.9? 
25.0 5 

1.3 


3.2 

43.4 

1.0 


66 " 

868 " 

20 " 


2 86 






Crude fibre 

Fat 


7.81 
.87 








954 " 


11.54 


Oat Straw. 


4.0 
36.2) 
39.55 

2.0 


1.4 
40.1 
0.7 


28 " 

802 " 

14 " 


1 31 






Fat..:. 


7.21 
61 








844 " 


9.03 


Linseed Oil Cake. 
Albuminoids 


28.3 
33.3) 
10.05 
10.0 


23.77 

35.15 

9.0 


475 " 
703 " 
180 " 


19.00 


Fibre .... 


6.33 


Fat 


7.80 








1358 " 


33.43 


Wheat Bran. 


15.0 

52.2) 

10.15 

3.2 


12.6 
42.6 
2.6 


252 " 

853 " 

52 " 


10 93 


Carbo-hydrates 






7.67 


Fat 


2.25 








1156 " 


30.84 


Corn Meal. 


10.0 
63.1) 

5.55 

6.5 


8.4 
60.6 
4.8 


168 " 

1312 " 

96 " 


7.28 






Crude fibre 


10.90 




4.16 








1476 " 


33.34 


Oats. 


12.0 
55.0) 

9.35 

6.5 


9.0 
43.0 
4.7 


180 " 

860 " 

94 « 


7 80 


Carbo-hydrates 




Fat , 


7.74 
4.07 


1 


: 1134 " 


19.61 



162 FEEDING ANIMALS. 

These comparisons of value by the ton of these very dis- 
similar foods is very instructive. We find clover-hay worth 
$1.7.82 and oat-straw $9 per ton; but it cannot be inferred 
that oat-straw would be as cheap at that price as clover- 
hay to make an entire food for cattle, or other animals, 
because clover-hay is a well-balanced food for cattle, and 
oat-straw is only a partial food, containing so little albu- 
minoids and fat that cattle would starve to death upon it if 
fed long enough. The muscles and nerves could not be 
nourished upon it; and yet a good article of oat-straw may 
be worth the price named, because of the digestible heat 
and fat-formers it contains. Now, put a ton of the best 
oat-straw with a ton of the best clover-hay, and you have 
a fairly-balanced food. It compares well with common 
meadow-hay. The digestible albuminoids, in clover 10.7, 
in straw lA, making the two added 12.1, and the average 
per cent, of the mixture is 6.05, whilst meadow-hay is only 
5.04. The digestible carbo-hydrates in the mixture is 
about 39.0 to 41.0 in hay, and the fat is 1.4 to 1.0 in 
meadow-hay. The parallel is very close; and as the mix- 
ture has slightly more albuminoids and fat, it may be con- 
sidered the better ration. These valuations of the different 
elements simply mean that each is worth the relative price 
named when fed in due proportion with the other ele- 
ments. Oil-cake, for example, is as far from being a bal- 
anced ration as oat-straw, for it contains as much too large 
a proportion of albuminoids as straw too small. It has 
also oil in excess. Like straw, it must be fed with other 
foods. If 400 lbs. of oil-cake be mixed with a ton of oat- 
straw, the mixture will make a ration equal to meadow- 
hay. 

Waste Products. 

The waste products, so called, from different manufac- 
tures are accumulating so rapidly, from the great increase 
of the several manufactures, that they assume a degree of 



FOOD TABLES. 163 

importance in beef, mutton or wool-growing much greater 
than heretofore. These waste products are also becoming 
quite numerous, and the location of these manufacturing 
establishments widely distributed. 

Corn-starch Feed. — Grape-sugar is now manufactured 
in very large quantities from the starch of Indian corn, 
and this leaves an immense quantity of refuse sugar or 
starch-meal, which must be utilized as food for animals. It 
thus becomes important to know its value, and how to com- 
bine it in the cattle ration. Some establishments run 2,000 
bushels corn per day; and the whole amount manufactured 
does not probably fall much below ten millions of bushels 
per year. This gives a large amount of refuse — about 
600,000 tons, including water, or about 200,000 tons of 
dry matter. If this were relieved of its water, it would 
bear transportation. Some manufacturers have adopted 
the plan of subjecting it to pressure to expel a large part 
of the water. The sample given in the analysis contained 
72 per cent, of water ; and it will be observed that the pro- 
portion of albuminoids is rather larger than in whole corn. 
The corn-sugar waste is what is left of corn after extract- 
ing all the starch that can be done by the present process 
used, which is converted into grape-sugar ; but about ten 
per cent, of the starch remains in the waste, together with 
all the albumiuoids not soluble in cold infusion. This 
food, if taken before too much fermentation has set in, is 
quite wholesome for cattle; but it should not be fed alone. 
We shall give rations including this food. 

Brewers' Grains. — This waste product has been longer 
used, and is generally better known than corn-sugar meal; 
but it has also been greatly abused by allowing it to attain 
a high state of fermentation before feeding. This has 
been one cause of bad milk resulting from its use, and 
another that it has been fed almost without other food, it 
being but a partial food in itself. This waste is more 



164 FEEDING ANIMALS. 

nitrogenous than corn waste, and may thus be properly 
mixed with poor hay, or even straw, if fed fresh. One 
great fault in using it has been in not feeding suilcient 
hay with it. This is a waste from barley, and has a 
nutritive ratio of one to three ; and, when properly com- 
bined in the ration, is good food for either milk or flesh. 
(See rations given in a future chapter.) 

Malt Spkouts. — This is a refuse that comes from malt 
in drying — the barley having sprouted, these fine filaments 
break off in handling, after drying. These sprouts arc 
very nitrogenous, having a nutritive ratio of 2.2, and, being 
quite dry, may be kept any length of time, and transported 
in sacks. This waste may be used to good advantage witli 
some food poor in albuminoids. 

Meat Scrap. — This is produced in considerable quanti- 
ties from some pork-packing establishments, being the res- 
idue of lard-making ; and, when thoroughly dried, may 
be ground fine, and is sometimes used as a food for cattle, 
mixed with hay, roots and corn-meal. It is so extremely 
rich in albuminoids, that only a small proportion can be 
economically used, as it contains twice the proportion of 
nitrogen as cotton-seed cake; but it is not difficult of 
digestion in small quantity. Meat scrap from cattle and 
sheep, made almost wholly from the intestines, is also in 
the market in a sweet condition, and has been fed to good 
account. This will only be found in the Northern States 
bordering on the Atlantic, and, at present, is not very 
important. 

Fish Scrap. — In working up fish for oil, there is a very 
large quantity of scrap ; and if the process is condticted in 
a cleanly way — as is the case at some of the works — the 
dry product, ground, has been proved to be entirely whole- 
some for cattle, mingled with other food, and it has been 
found to aid essentially in the fattening process. There 



I-OOD TABLES. 165 

have been numerous reports of the good effects of this 
scrap in fattening pigs. This fish scrap seems to be grow- 
ing into favor as food ; and we give its analysis in the fore- 
going table. We there give the analyses of these waste 
products, and also the most generally used of other foods. 
Feeders should familiarize themselves with the chemical 
qualities of these different foods. It will be understood 
that the money-value is merely comparative. 

These analyses a.re principally taken from the Report 
of the Agricultural Experiment Station, at Middletown, 
Conn., many of them the work of the station, and others 
taken from Dr. Wolff, of Grermany; and the money-value 
is calculated from the German formula — that is, the digest- 
ible albuminoids and fats are estimated at 43^ cents per 
pound, and the carbo-hydrates at i^^ cents per pound. This 
is a much higher estimate than the cost of these foods in 
most places in this country, especially west of New York 
State. But the table of values is intended to serve only the 
purpose of comparison, and they are no doubt approxi- 
mately accurate in that respect. 

A glance at the analyses of hay given will show how 
rapidly the quality of both timothy and clover deteriorates 
after fully heading out. They are in the best condition 
just before blossom. It will be seen that the nutritive 
ratio in timothy, just when headed out, is 1:10.4, and, when 
nearly ripe, 1:15.3; and clover, just before blossom, is 1:6.1, 
and when nearly ripe, is 1:10.3. This shows what cattle- 
feeders must do if they wish to retain the fattening qnality 
of the grasses for winter feeding. They must cut at or be- 
fore blossom for cattle-feeding. For city-market hay, it 
may be cut somewhat later, as horse-car companies in 
cities seek for a solid hay to mix with the grain, depend- 
ing almost wholly on the grain for nutriment. If they 
fully understood this question of alimentation, they would 
likewise require the grass to be cut earlier, and then feed. 



166 FEEDING ANIMALS. 

not more hay, but less grain. Good, bright, early-cut 
straw would answer about as well with the ground feed; as 
the hay serves principally as a divisor for the grain, render- 
ing the food in the stomach more porous, and more easily 
saturated with the gastric juice. 



SOILIKG. 167 



CHAPTER VII. 

SOILING. 

Previous to entering upon the discussion of the feeding 
any one class of stock, we think it fitting to give a short 
explanation of that mode of feeding now exciting great 
interest in all localities of dear land — soiling. The author 
does this with the more pleasure, as he was one of the early 
and earnest advocates of this mode of summer feeding on 
arable land worth $50 per acre. When he first wrote upon 
the subject of cutting green food in summer and feeding it 
to animals in stall or rack in the open yard, few were ready 
to listen ; it was deemed a Utopian scheme for performing 
useless labor. But a rapid change has been coming over 
cattle-feeders during the last twenty years upon the econ- 
omy of soiling, caused mainly by the necessity for dairy- 
men to provide green food for their cows during droughts 
or short pasture from other causes. In feeding an acre of 
good fodder corn, millet, clover, etc., they find the gain 
over pasture to be so great as to arrest their attention, and 
set them to thinking upon the propriety of using four 
acres of pasture when one acre soiled would furnish more 
cattle food. And besides, many occupants of small farms 
have not the space for pasturing any considerable number 
of stock, and turn to this method of feeding, which enables 
them to keep more than double the number of animals on 
a given number of acres. Josiah Quincy, who practiced 
the soiling system in Massachusetts as early as 1814, in 
speaking of the prevalent opinion of his time, as late as 



168 FEEDING ANIMALS. 

J 859, says: *' A mistaken notion that a considerable 
extent of land is requisite to enable a farmer to keep many 
head of cattle, led to a most wasteful portion of it being 
retained for the sole purpose of pasturage ; and thus, com- 
pared with its inherent productive power, was made 
useless." 

Mr. Quincy was very desirous of showing the small 
farmer how he might compete with the farmer of two or 
more times his number of acres, by adopting this more 
economical system of feeding; and that same necessity 
exists now, twenty years later, but under much more 
encouraging circumstances. We can now enter upon the 
task of showing the benefits of this system in detail, with 
the assuring knowledge that a hundred are ready to listen 
where one gave a ready ear twenty years ago. It is not 
anticipated that soiling will obtain, except in a very partial 
way, for many years yet, on the great farms of the West ; 
but on the smaller ones there, and on the medium-sized 
farms of the older States, soiling is likely to make much 
progress during the next ten to twenty years. It has a 
most important bearing on the meat production of the 
future, enabling the farmer upon high-priced Eastern 
lands to compete successfully with the cheap land and 
grain of the West in the production of beef and mutton. 
The improvements of the last few years, by which green 
food can cheaply be preserved for winter use, will also give 
the thorough soiling system an immense advantage over 
the out-door system of feeding in the West — giving the 
stock in the cold Eastern States the food of perpetual 
summer. 

As we aim to adapt this instruction to a wide extent of 
country — many desiring to understand this system in all 
its phases — we shall discuss its several economic aspects, 
from the standpoint of twenty-five years' experience. We 
will take these up in their order, setting forth the advant- 



SOILING. 169 

age of the system, and then try to give full weight to all 
the objections that may be urged against it ; for no subject 
is more than half discussed when we stop with the exami- 
nation of one side. The advantages of the soiling system 



are: 



1. Saying Land. 



The capacity of a farm to carry stock must soon be 
regarded as its measure of value, and that even in a grain 
region, for grain is an assistance and not an obstacle to 
stock-keeping ; and, on the other hand, stock-feeding is an 
assistance to grain-raising. France and Germany each 
keeps more stock and raises more wheat now than fifty 
years ago. These countries pasture very little, keeping 
their fields in crops, and these are fed to the stock. It is 
well-known to all farmers that an acre of good meadow 
grass, properly cured iuto hay, will furnish food for a cow 
or steer during the five or six months of winter ; and on 
well-conducted stock farms, under the old system, it will 
be found that three to four acres are devoted to pasture 
one cow or steer through the warm season. Every stock- 
feeder also knows that it takes more food to keep an animal 
in cold than warm weather. This statement, open to proof 
before every farmer's eyes, shows the great waste incident 
to pasturing. This waste of food is caused — 1. By walking 
over it ; 2. By lying upon it; 3. By dunging and staling 
upon it ; 4. By breathing upon it — all of these so affect the 
quality that animals will not eat the grass thus injured ; 
5. By frequent cropping, preventing its rapid growth, and 
thus reducing the amount grown upon an acre in a season. 
An examination of a pasture shows the effects mentioned 
by the tufts of old, uneaten grass, covering a large part of 
the ground. The only way to prevent some of these efiects 
is to turn a large number of cattle for a few hours each day 
into a comparatively small pasture, and not allow them to 
remain over night. If there are cattle enough to eat off 
8 



170 FEEDING ANIMALS. 

all the grass equally, and this plan is continued as often as 
the grass grows sufficiently to afford a good bite, much of 
the loss may be prevented. But under the best system of 
pasturage, it will require three acres of pasture to furnish 
as much food as one acre of good meadow. This, then, is 
equal to a loss of tioo-thirds of the land pastured, if we 
reckon only the absolute production. And if (as is usual) 
one-third of the farm is in grain and meadow, and two- 
thirds in pasture, then the loss on %%% acres of pasture, on 
a hundred-acre farm, would amount to nearly 45 acres; or, 
in other words, the soiling system, on arable land, would 
amount to a saving of 45 acres in 100, or 55 acres under 
the soiling system would be equal to 100 under the pastur- 
ing system. But those who have made practical compari- 
sons, both in this country and in Europe, estimate the gain 
in land greater than this. It has frequently been estimated 
that 50 acres, used under the soiling system, are equal to 
125 acres under the pasturing system. 

Hon. Josiah Quincy, who soiled his stock for 18 years, 
says : " One acre soiled from will produce at least as much 
as three acres pastured in the usual way; and there is no 
proposition more true than that any good farmer may 
maintain, upon 30 acres of good arable land, 20 head of 
cattle the year round ;" and that he had " kept 20 head on 
17 acres." I. D. Powell, of Winchester County, New 
Jersey, keeps 100 cows on 100 acres. 

Let us test this by another mode of comparison. A full 
crop of red clover will weigh, green, 20,000 lbs. to the acre. 
This would feed, in its green state, 20 cows, of 800 to 
1,000 lbs. weight, ten days, or one cow 200 days. This acre 
would furnish, in the second and third cuttings, two-thirds 
as much more, or in all, food for one cow through the year. 
We have raised clover that weighed 24,000 lbs, at a single 
cutting, per acre. Millet or Hungarian grass will yield 
about 16,000 to 20,000 lbs. per acre, and furnish food for 



SOILING. 171 

one cow 200 days. A good crop of green corn will weigh 
from 40,000 lbs. to 60,000 lbs., and furnish food for a 
cow for 333 to 500 days. A neighbor of the author meas- 
ured, accurately, one acre of field corn (grain in the milk) 
and fed to 104 cows (of an average estimated weight of 900 
lbs.), and it gave full feed for four days, or feed for one coav 
416 days. These cows were in milk, and yielded liberally 
on this ration. 

It is not meant that green corn fodder furnishes a com- 
plete ration for a cow, but that if it were a complete food, 
the quantity would be suflQcient for the time mentioned. 
The last experiment, feeding corn when the ear is in thick 
milk, furnishes a ration that would do very well for a 
month. 

It will be seen that one acre in these crops represents 
about four acres under the ordinary system, or three acres 
of pastu^'e and one acre of meadow. And there are many 
other crops producing as large an amount of cattle food. 
As the fences are dispensed with, the land they occupy on 
a 300-acre farm is at least five acres — and this, in good con- 
dition for soiling crops, would feed 10 cows through the 
pasturing season. 

2. Saving Fences. 

This is an item that should be carefully estimated, as it 
is one of the heaviest burdens of agriculture. Fences are 
needed only to restrain stock; and if stock is not pastured 
no fences are needed, except for yards, and perhaps a lane 
to lead the cattle to the wood lot for simple exercise. Take 
the fact of fencing 90 acres into four fields, for pasturing 
30 cows or cattle. These fields would be 223^ acres, and 
would require 720 rods of fence. Now, if this fence cost 
one dollar per rod, and if we suppose it to last 20 years, 
then the decay will amount to 5 per cent, per year, and the 
labor of annual repair is generally estimated at 5 per cent. 



172 FEEDING ANIMALS. 

The interest on original cost at 7 per cent, would be $50.40, 
and the 10 per cent, for decay and repair, $72 ; making 
1122.40 as the annual expense for fencing a pasture for 30 
head of cattle. We shall see, under another head, that this 
is more than the cost of labor for soiling the 30 head of 
stock. Mr. David Williams carefully prepared the fence 
statistics of Walworth County, Wisconsin, and after de- 
ducting for waste lands in ponds and lakes, and one-half of 
the division fences, he makes the annual cost for the whole 
county about one dollar per acre. Mr. Prince, of Maine, 
goes into an elaborate calculation of the cost of fences in 
that State in 1860, and the result does not vary much from 
an annual cost of one dollar per acre. The late Ezra 
Cornell took a great interest in studying this question, and 
gave his views in an address before the State Agricultural 
Society of New York, in 1862; and he arrived at the con- 
clusion tliat the average cost of fencing for every acre 
inclosed in that State is one dollar per annum. If, then, 
we take this as a fair estimate iu the older States, every 
acre of the farm must be charged at this rate, or a farm of 
300 acres, which usually keeps about 60 head of cattle, 
would pay a fence tax of 1300 in labor and material. The 
smaller the farm and the smaller the lots, the greater the 
cost of fences per acre. 

Mr. Quiucy dispensed with 1,600 rods of fence on his 
farm when he adopted soiling. Mr. F. S. Peer says his 
farm required 1,000 j-ods of interior fence, and the interest 
on its cost paid for the labor of soiling his stock after 
adopting soiling. 

3. Saving Food. 

When the feeder has his animals and their food entirely 
under his control, he becomes culpable for any waste that 
may occur. Under the soiling system, food may be given 
in such quantity and condition as to be wholly eaten. All 



SOILING. 173 

the waste of the pasture caused by treading, lying upon, 
fouling, etc., are prevented. A yery important saving is 
also found in the use of all the green food that grows upon 
tlie land, such as plantain, foul grasses, thistles, daisies, and 
nearly everything denominated weeds, when cut in a suc- 
culent state, are eaten, and are wholesome. The fine flavor 
of the flesh of the antelope and wild game, comes from 
aromatic herbs and what we denominate weeds. Most, if 
not all of the troublesome wild grasses that infest our cul- 
tivated fields are wholesome food for cattle, if cut at the 
right time; and soiling does this and saves all. Young 
Canada thistles and other tender thistles, are eaten by cat- 
tle and sheep, and preferred by horses to grass. That pes- 
tiferous weed, the white daisy, makes excellent food if cut 
before blossom, and can probably be exterminated by fre- 
quent cutting. Soiling oflFers a complete remedy for weeds, 
as nearly all are killed by frequent cuttings. Judicious 
soiling will soon make clean farms, and the weeds will pay 
for their destruction. 

Another source of saving food, in soiling cows or other 
cattle intended for beef, is that they are saved the exercise 
of many hours per day in foraging over large fields in 
search of food. This exercise is at the expenditure of 
food, and amounts to much more than is generally sup- 
posed. In a scanty pasture it requires constant exertion 
for 10 to IG hours per day for cows or steers to get food to 
satisfy their wants. The food required to supply this 
force is saved when the animals get all the food they want 
without exercise. But it must be understood that the 
soiling system does not prevent such exercise as is neces- 
sary for the health of animals. 

Youatt mentions in his "Complete Grazier," what all 
who have practiced the soiling system know, that cattle 
will eat many plants with avidity if given them in the 
barn, which they did not eat when growing in the field. 



174 FEEDING ANIMALS. 



4. Saving Manure. 



One important object of stock-keeping is the production 
of manure to keep up the fertility of the land. It is there- 
fore of the first moment that the manure should be all 
saved. In pasture more than half of the value of the 
manure is lost. It is evaporated by the sun, runs into the 
streams, so that the result is fortunate if half remains to 
enrich the soil. Josiah Quiucy found that his cows made, 
in soiling, one load of manure each per month, which he 
estimated worth $1.50 per load, or $9 per cow for the six 
soiling mouths. Prof. J. F. W. Johnston states that in 
Flanders the liquid and solid manure from a cow is valued 
at 120 per year. And at this rate, soiling for six months 
would save |5 per cow, if only half her manure were 
counted. Mr. Quincy says the saving in manure will pay 
all the labor of soiling. It is easy to preserve all the 
manure in the best manner under this system, and it can 
be applied just where and when needed. From personal 
experience of more than twenty years, the writer regards 
the saving in manure as worth at least $6 per cow over 
that of pasture, and he fully agrees with Mr. Quincy that it 
is a full compensation for all the labor, direct and indirect, 
in soiling. 

5. Effect upon Health and Condition.* 

Almost the first question is, " But are your animals 
healthy?" This question is no doubt prompted by the 
supposition that strict confinement is necessary. Yet soil- 
ing may be practiced with such exercise for the animal as 
the feeder chooses. And as animals are soiled with the 
same food, or with as good as they would get in pasture, why 
should they not be healthy ? Is it unhealthy for cows or 
steers to eat sweet clover in the cool stall ? We have had 
cows soiled for fourteen consecutive years. We have raised 
many colts under this system, giving them a runway for 



SOILING. 175 

exercise, and they were always quite as healthy and more 
thrifty than colts on pasture. Soiling furnishes an equal 
and j)lentiful diet, pasturing an unequal and often very 
scanty diet. In soiling the feeder has the condition of his 
animals entirely under his control, because he can supply 
such quantity of food as he chooses. The animal will 
make more progress on the same quantity and quality of 
food, because he gets it without unnecessary exercise. Ex- 
ercise requires extra food to compensate for the waste of 
muscle. The true rule should be to let an animal, at cer- 
tain hours of the day, take such exercise as it chooses, to 
promote health; not compel it to work sixteen hours to 
gain a living. The writer tested the comparative effect of 
soiling and pasturing on the same class of animals, by put- 
ting five two-year-old steers and heifers, weighing 4,500 
lbs., into a good pasture, while five of the same age and 
condition, weighing 4,450 lbs., were soiled, with exercise in 
a small yard, and, at the end of four months, those in the 
pasture had gained 625 lbs., and the five soiled had gained 
750 lbs., with nothing save green soiling food, making the 
two lots equal in kind of food. The pasture, although 
good and abundant when the experiment began, did not 
continue equally good throughout, on account of dry 
weathei', whilst the soiling food was given in equal abun- 
dance to the end. A little grain would probably have 
added 200 lbs. more to those soiled, and no doubt also to 
those pastured. Grain is usually about as cheap as grass, 
and quite as cheap as hay, and might more generally be 
used with profit as an addition to these foods. In soiling 
it is easy to add grain when the grass or other green fodder 
becomes tough or scanty, and thus never allow an abatement 
in growth. In the feeding of " baby beef," mentioned in 
the next chapter, this grain ration was given with excellent 
effect. There can be no standing still, if steers are to gain 
two lbs. per day for the first 800 days. The German and 



176 FEEDIITG ANIMALS. 

French beef- growers adopt largely a strict soiling system, 
and produce a higher average weight, at a given age, than 
any pasturing people has attained. 

6. Effect of Soiling upon Milk. 

Many persons, though satisfied of the good effects of 
soiling upon cattle fed for beef, fear that it will not operate 
well in the production of milk. But as the cow gets the 
same food in stall as she would in pasture, it is not easy to 
see why these fears should be entertained. The cow needs 
less exercise than almost any other domestic animal, and 
getting the fresh grass fed to her in stall, we might natu- 
rally expect an increased production of milk from a given 
quantity of food; and this has proved to be the case, accord- 
ing to the reports of both English and American feeders. 

Curwen, of Cumberland, England, and Harley, of Glas- 
gow, Scotland, established dairies on the soiling system 
(1805-10), and were very successful in supplying milk to 
towns. They both say the quantity of milk is much greater 
in proportion to the food consumed, than Avhen the cows 
were pastured in the open fields. Mr. Harley estimates one 
acre of grass consumed by cows in stall as producing as 
much milk as five acres pastured (Harleiau Dairy). 

Mr. Quincy had no hesitation in saying that his cows 
yielded considerably more during the whole season when 
soiled than when pastured. Robert L. Pell, who kept a 
dairy on this system, gave strong testimony in favor of a 
larger yield by soiling. 

But the most striking test of the two systems in the pro- 
duction of milk, is published by Dr. Rhode, of the Eldena 
Royal Academy of Agriculture, of Prussia. It was con- 
ducted through seven years of pasturing and then seven 
years of soiling. Mr. Hermann is the experimenter. The 
pasturing began in 1853, and ended in 1859 — the soiling 
began in 1860 and ended in 1866. From 40 to 70 cows 



SOILING. 177 

were pastured each year, aucl a separate account kept with 
each cow. The lowest average per cow is 1,385 quarts in 
1855, when 70 cows Avere kept, and the highest 1,941 
quarts in 1859, when 40 cows were pastured, and the greatest 
quantity given by one cow was 2,938 quarts. The average 
increased daring the hist four years from 1,400 to 1,941 
quarts. The average per cow for the whole seven years of 
pasturing was 1,583 quarts. 

In the soiling experiment 29 to 38 cows were kept, and 
the lowest average per cow 2,930 quarts, in 1862, and the 
highest average per cow 4,000 quarts, in 1866. The high- 
est quantity given by any one cow was 5,110 quarts, in 
1866. The average per cow for the whole seven years of 
soiling was 3,442 quarts. The yield of the same cow is 
compared for different years. Cow No. 4 gave, in 1860, 
3,636 quarts; in 1863, 4,570 quarts; and in 1866, 4,960 
quarts. Cow No. 24, in 1860, 3,293 quarts; in 1863, 4,483 
quarts; in 1866, 4,800 quarts. 

The first notable fact here is that the average for the 
whole seven years of soiling was more than double that of 
the seven years of pasturing. Many of these cows were 
the same during both of these experiments; and it will be 
observed that the same cow increased from year to year, 
which shows what high feeding will do, and also that soil- 
ing was conducive to the health of the cow during seven 
years. He fed in summer green clover and vetches, and 
later seradella (a leguminous forage plant), and in addition 
oil-cake and rye bran. 

On the whole, this is a most encouraging experiment 
to the dairyman, showing him that he cannot pay too much 
attention to feeding, and that an increase of food and care 
will be constantly remunerated by the increase in tlie yield 
of milk. It shows him that he may expect much from the 
development of his cows, and that soiling is one of the 
best means to accomplish this object. 



178 FEEDING ANIMALS. 

This testimony would seem to establish the fact that 
soiling is favorable to milk production, and the writer's 
experience has fully confirmed this view. He has often 
stated the gain to be from 20 to 30 per cent, over that of 
ordinary pasture. This may be accounted for, 1st, by the 
saving of exercise in not having to forage over the pasture 
all day for food, as the food required to support this exer- 
cise goes to the secretion of milk; and 2dly, because in 
soiling, the cow gets, uniformly, all the food she can digest; 
whilst in pasture a full supply of food is uncertain, and not 
usually obtained for more than brief periods. It is not 
contended that soiling will produce more milk than the 
best pasture, whilst that lasts — it is the whole season upon 
which this improved yield is calculated. 

The dairyman is now likely to enter upon the system of 
continuous milk production, extending through the winter 
as well as the summer; and the new plan of preserving 
green fodder in silos naturally belongs to the soiling sys- 
tem. By this method he will use green food throughout 
the year, and keep his cows as cheaply in winter as in sum- 
mer; for with warm stables, the fodder produced upon the 
same amount of land that kept them in summer will give 
them full rations in winter; and the same flow of milk may 
be kept up, requiring little o-r no grain-ration, according to 
the kind of green food preserved for winter use. It seems 
likely, with the successful preservation of green fodder, 
that the cost of keeping stock will be much less than 
under the old system, as the loss by drying is regarded, 
under favorable circumstances, as not less than 10 per cent, 
and under the ordinary practice much more than that. 
But for winter dairying, this green food will have the im- 
portant quality of flavor. Grasses lose much of their 
aroma in drying. According to reports from France, 
where ensilage has been much used for the last ten years, 
the aroma of the green food is preserved in silos. This 



SOILING. 179 

will give as fine-flavored butter in winter as in summer, 
and as large a quantity. It will also insure better health to 
the cows, preventing almost wholly impaction of the mani- 
folds and kindred diseases caused by dry, innutritions fod- 
der. The grasses and various green forage plants, well 
preserved for winter use, will render the raising of roots 
less important, as the sanitary effect of the roots will be 
found in the preserved grasses. 

7. Effect on Meat Pkoduction. 

The same reasons considered in milk production, apply 
with equal force to the growth of beef or mutton. Animals 
grown for their flesh require a different system of manage- 
ment from those whose value dejiends upon the muscular 
development. These latter need much exercise, as well as 
appropriate food for building up and perfecting the bony 
and muscular systems, whilst those used for human food . 
need only such exercise as is necessary for health, a vigor- 
ous appetite, and growth. Absolute command over the 
supply of food is here necessary to insure constant progress, 
and, as we have seen, soiling gives us this most completely. 
For meat production we do not desire extra muscular de- 
velopment, and animals full-fed are not inclined to take 
excessive exercise. Calves full-fed, for rapid growth, are 
content to enjoy their food and take the rest required for 
quiet and rapid digestion. Under this system we have 
found it easy to continue the calf-flesh, as some feeders call 
it, keeping up that plump and rounded appearance of the 
animal for the whole time of feeding — twenty-four to thirty 
months — and to make a weight of 1,200 to 1,600 lbs. The 
purpose here is to produce t-he greatest weight of meat in 
the shortest time, or to grow the greatest weight of meat 
with a given amount of food. As we shall see, during the 
progress of these discussions, time is a most imj^ortant 
factor in this result; and the time may be shortened mate- 



180 FEEDING ANIMALS. 

rially with the opportunity the skillful feeder has to observe 
and supply the wants of each animal under the soiling 
system. 

The English have adopted a system of beef-raising upon 
a partial pasturage — soiling and grain feeding combined — 
and the result is an average much greater than is produced 
with our system of pasturing. Moderate grain feeding, 
with soiling or pasturing, is usually a decided economy in 
growing meat; for grain is often a cheap food, and being 
given as an extra is applied wholly as food of production 
to the gain in weight. Cattle are able to assimilate more 
nutriment than can be gained from grass, limited to its 
powers of digestion. A small amount of grain will thus 
be assimilated, besides all the grass the steer can digest. 
For this reason a little grain is nearly always profitable to 
the beef-raiser. 

Soiling offers the opportunity to push the growth of ani- 
mals in warm weather, when food produces a far better 
result ; and as the animals are constantly under the eye of 
the feeder, he can apportion the allowance to the wants of 
each. This system is, therefore, admirably adapted to the 
production of meat; and it offers the most feasible plan 
for the production of meat upon the small farms of the 
East. Under the present system of pasturage, the Eastern 
States are largely tributary to the West for the meat con- 
sumed each month. To partially compensate for this, 
Eastern farmers often buy Western steers in spring and 
fatten them on pastm-e during the warm season ; but as it 
takes three to five acres to feed a steer through the sum- 
mer, the profit is too small to be worthy of consideration. 
One acre prepared for soiling would feed the steer much 
better than four times this amount of pasture, and on this 
there might be a reasonable profit. The great need on 
Eastern farms is manure, and feeding cattle and sheep on 
the soiling system would produce a very large amount of 



SOILING, 181 

manure to return to the land. This system of summer 
feeding, with green ensilage for winter feeding, would ren- 
der the Eastern States wholly independent of meat pro- 
duced beyond their borders. They could afford to buy 
Western grain for feeding under such a system; and this 
would enrich their farms each year and cause their much- 
needed grain crop to be greatly increased. This system of 
meat-production would soon settle the question of profit- 
able farming upon all the arable small farms of the Eastern 
and Middle States. Much of the land in the Eastern 
States, now regarded as unprofitable to cultivate, would, 
under this system, soon produce as much meat per acre as 
the most favored Western lands, under their system. The 
abandoned "old homesteads" would again become the scene 
of a busy and profitable husbandry. France, largely fol- 
lowing this system, has, of horses, cattle, sheep, goats, and 
swine, about five to every six arable acres; and, besides 
keeping this large proportion of stock, raises nearly as 
much wheat as the whole production of the United States 
in 1880. 

Objections to Soiling. 

LABOR. 

The chief objection to this system has always been the 
labor required to carry it out. This extra labor consists, 
1st, in raising soiling crops — producing them in regular 
rotation, so that there shall be no lack of green food for 
the animals at all times during the season — and, 2dly, in 
cutting these green crops and carting them to the feeding 
stable or yard, feeding the animals three or four times per 
day, cleaning the stable, if one is used, and all the neces- 
sary details belonging to the system. The objections as to 
its ill effects upon the health and thrift of the animal, or 
yield of milk, etc., we have already considered. Let us, 
then, examine carefully the question of labor. First, the 



183 FEEDING ANIMALS. 

preparation of the laud to be used for soiling must be thor- 
ough, in order that full crops may be raised, and as large 
an amount of food produced to the acre as possible; for it 
will cost less labor to gather and cart 2,000 lbs. of green 
clover from 16 than from 30 to 40 rods, or the same 
amount of green corn from 5 or 6 rods than 15 rods. The 
real point in tlie preparation of the soil for a good crop be- 
longs rather to the question of good farming than to soiling. 
The endeavor should be to raise large crops for their profit, 
under whatever system they may be used; and, if the laud 
is in a proper condition for a good crop of corn, millet, 
oats, rye, clover, etc., then it will require no special prepa- 
ration for such soiling crop; and a farmer should not con- 
sider a system that requires him to raise good crops as 
objectionable. The legitimate labor of soiling, in fitting 
and seeding an acre to rye, oats, peas, corn, millet, etc., 
when these crops are raised for that purpose, may be esti- 
mated at $4, but this is twice or thrice repaid by the extra 
value of tlie crop over an acre of pasture. 

Secondly, the labor required to cut and haul the green 
crop to the animals, and feed it out, is, no doubt, greatly 
exaggerated in the minds of those who consider it theoreti- 
cally. The cost per animal will necessarily depend some- 
what x^pon their number — the labor of attending a small 
number must be greater in proportion than a large num- 
ber; but that is the case under any mode of keeping. It 
costs more in proportion to fence a pasture for five animals 
than fifty. The smaller the lot, the larger proportion of 
fence per acre. All small farms labor under this disadvan- 
tage, and, in soiling, the labor will be more in proportion; 
but the large addition to the animals that may be kept by 
polling will lead small farmers before large ones to adopt it. 

An Experiment. — We can give, perhaps, the best idea 
of the labor required to soil a moderate number of animals 
in relating an (experiment by the author during the season 



SOILING. 183 

of 1862. This will also illustrate what may be done with- 
out much preparation, as the land set apart was mostly only 
in ordinary farm condition. The animals to be fed were 20 
steers, 3 and 4 years old, 8 cows and 6 horses. These were 
regarded, in consuming capacity, as equal to 35 one- 
thousand-pound cows. And 100 acres of land, thought to 
be just sufficient to pasture these animals, were selected, 
and the whole product either fed to this stock as green 
food or stored by itself as hay. Ninety acres of this land 
were in ordinary meadow (some clear timothy, some timo- 
thy and June clover), five acres in excellent clover, two in 
oats, and three in fodder-corn. These animals were fed 
from May 20th to December 1st from this hundred acres, 
with a surplus of 65 tons of hay, which sold in barn for 
$972. An accurate account of the labor was kept — it 
requiring six hours' labor of one man, and two hours' of 
one horse, per day; costing ia those cheap times, $75. The 
grass was cut by hitching a light wood mowing-machine 
behind a one-horse cart, driving the horse around the plat 
till sufficient was cut for a day's feed, raking and pitching 
it on the cart, and taking to the barn where the animals 
were fed. It required two cart-loads per day. 

This experiment made* a stronger impression, from the 
fact that good fat cattle were very low that year; and 
after deducting the cost of putting hay in barn, $97.50, and 
the labor of soiling, $75 — making $172.50 — a net gain was 
left of $799.50; whilst the 20 steers,-of 1,100 lbs. average 
weight, brought only $34 per head, or $680, although fat — 
showing a gain on the experiment of $119 more than tlie 
whole value of the 20 steers, besides making 100 large loads 
of rich manure, worth $100 more than the droppings would 
have been on the field. The manure was regarded as a full 
compensation for the labor of soiling, and more than 
enough to pay for the extra labor of soiling over that of 
pasturing; for the labor of repairing fences was saved, and 



184 FEEDING ANIMALS. 

it is no small matter to keep the fences in repair on 100 
acres of pasture laud. 

This experiment, taking common, and some of it thin 
meadow for cutting (except the ten acres mentioned as in 
clover, oats, and fodder-corn), was using smaller crops than 
is recommended for soiling, and, therefore, took more labor 
than would be required under the best circumstances. A 
smaller number would require more time proportionally 
under the same conditions; but a larger number, under 
just the right conditions, could be soiled at much less pro- 
portional cost. 

COST OF LABOE FOR ONE HUNDRED HEAD. 

Let us see what one active man may do under favorable 
conditions. Let 100 head of cattle be arranged on both 
sides of a convenient feeding floor, with space to drive a 
wagon along the floor; and let the soiling crops be well 
prepared, and convenient to the barn. Now, let the man 
be provided with a team, mowing-machine, wagon, and hay 
loader. He goes into a field of green rye, standing thick 
on the ground, and 2 to 3 feet high. May 15tli. Starting 
in with the mowing-machine, he cuts 100 rods, leaving the 
stubble 3 inches high. Now he hitches his hay-loader be- 
hind his wagon, and drives the wagon over the mown rye, 
the hay-loader picking it up and rolling it upon the hay- 
rack. Having loaded about one-third of it, or 35 hundred, 
he drives to the barn. This is one-third of a day's feed. 
He gathers up the 'other two loads and brings them to the 
barn, when the day's feed is provided. This has taken 
him less than four hours. If now the weather indicates a 
storm, he repeats this, and houses another day's feed; and 
sometimes two days' ahead, if the weather indicates a storm 
of more than one day's duration, for all external water 
should be avoided as far as possible. Nature has provided 
sufficient water in the sap of the plant, and any excess 



SOILING. 185 

seems to be practically deleterious. Cows eating wet grass 
in barn will fall off in milk nearly as much as if out in the 
storm. 

Mr. F. S. Peer, who has written a practical work on soil- 
ing, having practiced this system wholly for some eight 
years, recommends a stout self-rake reaper for cutting 
soiling crops, leaving the fodder in thick, heavy gavels, 
easily pitched from the gavel upon the wagon. It might 
also be pitched on with the loader, at the rate of a ton in 
five minutes. One advantage of cutting with a reaper 
would be its less liability to dry before hauling to stable. 

It will be seen that our feeder, when the weather is pro- 
pitious, has easily put in his day's supply for the hundred 
head in the forenoon ; that the team is released for other 
work in the afternoon, and the feeder has time, not only 
for feeding, but for cleaning, littering, etc. The hay-loader 
will pick up the grass about as clean as it is usually 
pitched out of a windrow; then a horse-rake, passing over 
the ground, will gather up all the scatterings. 

In cutting clover for feeding, the labor will be about the 
same, although it is somewhat easier to gather, and often 
produces a greater weight upon an acre; but it also con- 
tains a larger percentage of sap or water. As soon as the 
clover gets large enough to cut, it is well to mix rye and 
clover together for feeding, as clover contains a larger per- 
centage of albuminoids than the rye, and, mingled together, 
they form a well-balanced ration. All the soiling crops, 
except, perhaps, fodder-corn, may be elevated upon the 
wagon by the hay-loader, and the labor will be about the 
same as that described with winter rye. 

From this statement, it becomes evident a good man 
may perform all the hand-labor for soiling 100 head of 
cattle. How much more could he do than keep the fences 
in repair on the land required to pasture 100 head? Esti- 
mated in the ordinary way, the hand-labor would cost $1 



186 FEEDIJSTG ANIMALS. 

per day, or 1 cent per head, per day; and if the horse-labor 
and other expenses be added, it will not exceed 2 cents per 
head, per day, on so large a stock. 

In speaking of the ration above of rye, or corn, it is not 
intended to imply that a ration may properly be made up 
wholly of rye or corn fodder. These are good soiling foods, 
but neither forms a complete ration, and should, when 
practicable, be mixed with clover or some of the grasses. 
A mixture of grasses, such as is found in pasture or old 
meadows, afford such a variety as makes a complete ration. 

Thus it will appear that the labor of soiling is compen- 
sated in three ways — first, in saving fences ; secondly, in 
saving manure; and, thirdly, in the extra production of 
milk, meat, wool, or growth. 

Soiling Okops. 

The success of this system must depend, very much upon 
the skill exercised in the production of the proper soiling 
crops. It is not proposed to cut meagre green crops for 
feeding in stall or yard; for the labor — which we have just 
been considering — would be too great for any gain to be 
anticipated. It is expected that the land for soiling will 
be put in such fine condition as to bear excellent crops, 
and that these crops be located convenient to the place of 
feeding. A good crop of rye, clover, etc., will require only 
one rod or less per day for each animal, whilst a thin crop 
might require three rods for the same purpose. It is, 
therefore, most important that we should give careful 
attention to the best crops for cutting green. The crop 
that may be cut earliest in spring is — 

Winter Rye. — This flourishes best on a sandy or grav- 
elly soil, but will grow large crops on heavy clay loam, if 
well under-drained. It yields a large supply of green food 
on soil only moderately rich, as its roots spread out in a 
thick network over a considerable space, and furnish a 



SOILING. 187 

large number of absorbents. It being an annual, it must 
be cut before the head forms, if proposed to cut more than 
once, and it will then spring up again at once for a second 
crop. Some German authorities say that it may be cut at 
short intervals during the first summer, and then mature a 
crop of seed the next season. Great care should be taken 
to cut it in its young and succulent state, so as to keep it in 
vigor. If the crop is good, and the land sufficiently moist, 
it may be cut every three or four weeks. But the difficulty 
is to get a sufficiently thick growth to pay well for cutting 
before the head is formed, so as to prevent a good second 
growth. And therefore it is mostly cut but once, and for 
this purpose it is left till headed out, but before blossom. 
It will then be 4 to 5K feet high, and yield the largest 
crop. In this case, the land is used for a second soiling 
crop, usually corn or millet. 

Eye should be sown early for soiling — say the latter part 
of August, or early in September, for the Middle and New 
England States, and for the Southern States it may be 
sown as late as November. It is better sown with a drill, 
at the rate of two bushels per acre. If it grows vigorously 
in fall, feed it off if the land is dry, or cut it high with a 
machine, so that it will not smother under snow. The 
proportion of dry organic matter in green rye is about 25 
per cent., Avhich is more than iu clover, but its albuminoids 
are in less proportion than in clover or peas. And although 
we have found cattle to do well upon rye alone for a few 
weeks, yet it is better to give some more nitrogenous food 
with it, such as clover, oil-cake, wheat middlings, oat-meal, 
etc. Rye is ready to cut before clover ; and small quanti- 
ties of these other foods may be given with rye till clover 
is ready to be cut and fed with it. Rye and clover com- 
bined, make a most excellent ration for steers or cows. 
Medium clover is ready to cut, in latitude 38° to 41'^, 
about the 10th to the 25th of May, and is but a short time 



188 FEEDING ANIMALS. 

behind rye. Eye is ricli iu carbo-hydrates, and clover in 
albuminoids, so that the one is the complement of the 
other. The rye crop is much benefited by harrowing once 
or twice in spring after the ground becomes sufficiently dry 
to drive upon it. The slanting-tooth harrow is used. 

Eed Clovee {IVifolium pratense). — This must always 
be one of the most important crops for soiling, both on 
account of its early cutting, and its large amount of excel- 
lent green food grown upon an acre. It contains more 
water in the green state than rye ; but its albuminoids 
and carbo-hydrates are in better proportion as a food for 
young and growing animals, and for the production of 
milk. On dry, rich soils very large crops may be raised, 
even as high as twelve tons of green food at the first cut- 
ting in early blossom, and often two more cuttings, amount- 
ing to eight or more tons — yielding even as high as twenty 
tons of green clover in a season, or over six tons of dry 
clover hay. This proportion of green to dry clover is cal- 
culated from experiments made by Prof. Yoelcker on the 
College farm at Cirencester. This crop is cheaply raised, 
is subject to but few insect enemies, and not affected so 
much by drought as most other crops, owing to the fact 
that its long tap root reaches down deep, and draws up 
moisture and fertility from the subsoil. Its broad leaves 
also draw largely for nourishment upon the atmosphere. 

Hon. Harris Lewis, a dairyman of much experience, says 
one acre of good, clover will feed a dairy of 35 cows for 15 
days ; that 3 acres have furnished his herd of 38 cows with 
food for 35 days; but this was probably on partial pasture. 

The author, many years since, in order to determine the 
feeding capacity of an acre of heavy clover, measured off 
40 rods and fed to cows, and found it equal to feeding one 
cow 180 days. The two succeeding years the same experi- 
ment was repeated, and the M of an acre was found equal to 
feeding one cow 168 and 1G5 days respectively, but these 



SOILING. 189 

cows had a small bare pasture lot to run on a portion of the 
day. The cows yielded well in milk. We did not consider 
the pasture of much account. 

Orchard Grass {Dadylis glomerata) is an excellent 
soiling grass, and should be grown with clover, as they are 
both ready to cut at the same time. They both commence 
a fresh growth immediately after cutting. This grass 
attracted the favorable attention of Washington. He 
says: "Orchard grass, of all others, is, in my opinion, the 
best mixture with clover; it blooms precisely at the same 
time, rises quickly again after cutting, stands thick, yields 
well, and both cattle and horses are fond of it, green or in 
hay." This is a good description of its excellences, 
although in order to " stand thick " the soil must be made 
very fine and a large amount of seed sown. We have seen 
it growing luxuriantly on a heavy clay loam. With proper 
attention and manuring it may be cut at least three times 
in a season. 

Lucerne {Medicago sativa). — This plant also has, where 
the soil is adapted to it, a peculiar value for soiling. It 
belongs to the cUiss of leguminous plants, and, like clover, 
takes a very deep root, penetrating even deeper than clover, 
the roots having been traced as much as thirteen feet beside 
a pit. Its nutritive qualities are about equal to clover, and 
it produces, in favorable situations, a much greater weight 
per acre. On rich, warm land it gives an early cutting, and 
four or five in a season. It is, perhaps, one of the oldest 
cultivated forage plants — was in common use among the 
Greeks and Eomans. It was cultivated in New York 
nearly a century ago. Chancellor Livingston experimented 
with it in 1791, and reports some three years of his trial. 
He obtained over six tons of hay in five cuttings. The 
soil best adapted to it is a deep, rich loam, inclining to 
sandy, with a porous subsoil, or a well-drained clay loam. 
It is very sensitive to the interference of weeds, and, in 



190 FEEDING ANIMALS. 

Europe, is usually hoed, as we do coru the first year, and 
top-dressed yearly, in the fall, with well-rotted manure. 
Its roots striking so deep into the soil prevents its suifering 
from di ought, like shallow-rooted plants. When once well 
established it will yield bountiful crops for many years. It 
must have a peculiar value as a forage crop on the warm, 
rich, deep soils of the South and West, It is grown in 
some parts of the South, and quite generally in California, 
under the name of Alfalfa. This particular plant was 
brought from Peru, but is simply a variety of Lucerne. 

As we are considering the crops best adapted to soiling, 
it will be well to consider them in about the order of their 
growth for cutting. 

Timothy and Laege Clover come after lucerne and are 
ready, as a soiling crop, in June. These two make an ex- 
cellent combination of green food. Timothy [Phleum. 
pratense), deservedly stands at the head of grasses for the 
hay crop, and will often cut eight to ten tons of grass be- 
fore blossoming ; and at that period makes a nutritious 
food for the production of either beef, mutton or milk. It 
is also adapted to a wide range of soils. The only objec- 
tion to it, as a soiling crop, is that it does not start quickly 
after cutting, yet it sometimes gives a heavy second crop in 
favorable seasons. It remains in vigor longer when cut 
early than late, and for this reason we have found it a val- 
uable aid in soiling. 

The large pea-vine clover does not differ materially in 
quality from common red clover, but is of larger growth, 
later in maturing, and is ready to cut at the same time as 
timothy ; and being more nitrogenous, the two grasses are 
complementary to each other. A good crop of timothy 
and large clover will often reach twelve to sixteen tons of 
green food per acre, at the first cutting ; and this is equal 
to furnishing food for a thousand-pound cow or steer for 



SOILING CROPS. 191 

ten months, and the next cutting will usually furnish 
abundant food for the rest of the year. 

Alsike Clover and Timothy. — These may also be 
grown together as a soiling crop. Alsike clover [Trifo- 
lium Hyhridum) is an extremely hardy forage plant, will 
remain fixed in the soil and yield good crops for eight or 
ten years. It branches very much, throws out many stalks 
from one root, thus requiring only thin seeding ; the lioots 
strike very deep into the sub-soil. The period of bloom is 
much longer than in red clover, and it is in good condition 
to cut with timothy. By beginning to cut it when the first 
blossoms appear, it remains in condition for soiling some 
three or four weeks — an important point in some seasons. 
It may be doubtful if so large crops are raised of alsike as 
of red clover, but the greater permanence of the root ren- 
ders it an important plant for soiling. Some say it will 
not yield a second crop, but as it bears cropping well in 
pasture, and is deemed a valuable plant for pasturage, it is 
not easy to see why, if cut early, it will not grow again 
after cutting. But one large crop of alsike and timothy 
will be qui!' satisfactory, as it would feed twelve cattle for 
one month per acre. Only one half the seed used for red 
clover is required for alsike. It is sown with timothy 
either spring or fall. 

For Southern soiling, Desmodium, Japan clover, Mexi- 
can clover. Satin grass and Gama grass, mentioned on 
pages 149-52, will be found profitable. These may all 
grow large crops and will bear several cuttings. 

Green Oats. — In regular order, oats will mature suf- 
ficiently to cut after timothy. If the soil is rich and warm, 
oats will come forward rapidly and make a good cutting in 
the latter part of June. If oats are cut before the head is 
formed, they will make a second growth, starting quickly 
and growing more rapidly the second than the first time. In 
this respect the oat plant is governed by the same rule as 



192 FEEDING ANIMALS. 

winter rye. The oat crop is best put in with a drill, three 
bushels of seed to the acre for soiling, but to be matured 
as grain, two to two and a half bushels of seed is better. 
Two harrowings with the slanting-toothed harrow should 
be given to stimulate the growth of the oats and cause them 
to tiller freely. Oats will then grow very thick, and the 
heading will be somewhat delayed so that, at a foot high, 
they may be cut for soiling and another crop grown rapidly. 
But it is best, generally, to cut only one crop and then the 
grain should be in milk, as at that point it contains the 
largest amount of digestible nutriment, but if there is a 
considerable quantity to be used, cutting may be begun 
when fairly headed out. 

Peas and Oats may also be combined in the same soil- 
ing crop, and they will be ready to cut at the same time. 
This combination of green food is of the very best — the 
pea and the oat being both rich in albuminoids — it furnishes 
a most excellent fattening food, as well as one for the 
production of milk. They both grow well together and 
largely increase the amount of nutriment. For seed, mix 
two bushels of peas to forty quarts of oats, and then drill 
in four bushels of the mixture to the acre. This will give a 
good stand, and soon cover the ground and keep down the 
weeds. This combined crop is ready to cut as soon as the 
pea is in blossom, but is best when the seed is in milk. 
We have had a yield of fourteen tons of this combined 
green food to the acre, and no better food is grown. This 
united crop may be put in early, as frost does not injure 
either peas or oats. 

Common Millet [Pajiicum MilUacium). — On a dry, 
rich, light, well-pulverized soil, millet will furnish an abun- 
dant yield of green food of the best quality. But, being a 
fine seed, it is not adapted to heavy soils, which do not 
easily pulverize, especially not without thorough under- 
drainage. Heavy clay loam, if rich and finely pulverized. 



SOILIKG CROPS. 193 

will raise the heaviest crops ; but this quality of soil is dif- 
ficult to pulverize sufficiently. A very great weight of 
green food may be produced from millet. It will grow 
four to five feet high, and, if thick on the ground, will 
yield fifteen to eighteen tons per acre. In this green state 
it has a nutritive ratio of one to seven, whilst timothy grass 
is one to eight, which shows well for quality. If sown 
broadcast, 32 to 40 quarts of seed may be used ; if planted 
with a drill, 16 to 20 quarts, but it should be put in not 
more than half to an inch deep. May be sown from first 
of May to first of July. Should be cut before or in early 
blossom. 

Hungarian" Grass {Setaria Germanica) belongs to the 
millet family, and its quality as a green food is nearly or 
quite as good. It has a still finer seed. It does not grow 
quite so tall, but grows a heavy crop on good land, which 
requires to be of the same quality as for millet. 

Sixteen to twenty quarts of seeds give a good stand. It 
should be cut for soiling (if only a single crop) before or 
while blossoming, but two crops may be cut if the first is 
taken before the head is formed. It grows again very 
quickly, yet it is doubtful if two crops would be as profit- 
able as one full crop. For seed Hungarian grass carries a 
shorter, more erect, spike-like panicle, and yields less grain 
than — 

Italian Millet {Setaria Italica), which grows four 
feet high, and has an abundance of foliage, with a long 
and numerously-branched panicle, yielding a large amount 
of seed. This is said in Europe to produce three to five 
times as much grain as wheat to the acre. Its head is of a 
yellowish color, whilst the Hungarian is darker, the seeds 
also darker. 

The millets grown in this country are considerably 
mixed, almost all kinds being found in every field. The 
Italian is often called " Golden Millet." 
9 



194 FEEDING AKIMALS. 

When the land is appropriate the millets cannot be 
safely left out of the list of soiling crops. 

Vetch ( Vicia Sativa). — There is both a winter and a 
spring variety of vetch, but the winter is thought the best. 
It may be sown with winter rye, or, if the spring variety, 
with oats. We have had no experience with the vetch, but 
know that it is grown between Toronto and Montreal, in 
Canada, and see no reason why it may not be grown in a 
similar climate on the American side. It is a valuable 
soiling crop in England and Europe. Its food value is very 
similar to the pea. It is highly esteemed as food for work 
horses during summer. It may be cut several times in a 
season, and furnishes a large amount of food. 

Fodder Corn. — This, although given near the last, is 
not least. Corn is adapted to the soils of all the States, 
and produces, under favorable circumstances, enormous 
yields of green fodder. The author has grown 28 tons to 
the acre ; but M. GofEart, of France, grows from 30 to 50 
tons, as he has stated in his work upon ''Ensilage." His 
statements seem quite reliable, as he weighed whole fields 
when brought to silo. There is no doubt that it produces 
a larger weight of green food than any other crop raised in 
the United States except, perhaps, sorghum, and this ren- 
ders its study, as a soiling crop, o»f the highost importance. 
Its nutritive ratio is about one to nine ; so it is not so nu- 
tritious as grass or millet ; yet, being digestible, and fur- 
nishing such an abundant quantify, it is a most desirable 
crop, as it can be fed in combination with clover, oats and 
peas, and other more nitrogenous food. The largest crops 
may be grown with the large Western or Southern varie- 
ties of field corn ; and next to these, mammoth sweet corn 
and Stowell's evergreen sweet corn. The quality of the 
sweet varieties is better than the field varieties. The 
greatest amount of desirable nutriment is obtained by 
planting in drills 32 inches apart, so that the corn can be 



SOILING CEOPS. 195 

thoroughly cultivated. The sweet corn will then grow ears 
upon a large proportion of the stalks, and these ears, in 
the soft state, greatly improve the quality of the food for 
both fattening and milk production. When thus grown, 
cattle fatten rapidly upon it, and cows yield milk abun- 
dantly. Corn is so easily grown, and produces so largely, 
that dairymen make it the principal green food to sustain 
their herds upon short pasture. Judicious feeders, when 
they have no other green food but fodder corn, are in the 
habit of feeding wheat bran and middlings with the corn 
fodder, so as to make it a well-balanced food. 

Sorghum. — This is very much of the nature of Indian 
corn, but contains a slightly larger percentage of albu- 
minoids ; and, on soils suited to it, as large crops may be 
grown as of corn. It requires a finer tilth than corn, and 
more careful attention in the beginning of its growth. It 
needs to be grown very thick in the drill to prevent the 
stalks from having a hard, flinty rind. It contains much 
sugar, which is very digestible and fattening, rendering it 
also appetizing to the cattle. It grows very tall, and thus 
yields a great weight, often 30 or more tons per acre. Its 
curing for winter fodder should not be attempted, as it 
contains so large a proportion of juice as to render this 
almost impracticable. 

How TO Use the Green Crop. 

Our farmers are quite too much inclined to confine 
animals to a single food whilst it lasts, and then take 
another and feed that in the same way. Under the soil- 
ing system, as every other system of feeding, the first 
study should be to give as much variety in the ration as 
convenience will allow. Winter rye makes a wholesome 
soiling crop, but it is much better to feed it with clover 
when that can be done. The two make a better-balanced 
ration, and the over-succulent clover is modified by the 



196 FEEDING AlfTIMALS. 

less succulent rye. "When the only green crop is clover in 
its most succulent state, we have often run the clover 
through a cutter and then mixed it with one-quarter to 
one-third of its bulk of cut straw, let it lie in mass for a 
few hours and the straw absorbs the extra moisture, when 
the whole will be eaten greedily, the straw preventing all 
danger of bloat. We have been a little surprised to find 
that cows will yield the same milk upon a mixture of one- 
fourth straw with the clover as when fed on clover alone. 
The test, however, was not made so accurately as to deter- 
mine whether they made the milk on a quarter less clover ; 
they may have eaten nearly as much clover and the straw 
extra. But with a great deal of experience in thus mixing 
in straw, we concluded that it was a profitable way to use 
straw, as we found on examining the drippings that the 
straw was well digested. When the clover begins to 
blossom, its succulence is so much reduced that it is quite 
safe to feed it alone. When the system of soiling is con- 
ducted on a large scale, the use of the feed-cutter will be 
found very profitable in mingling all the fine and coarse 
parts of the fo-dder together, especially if the green crop 
is fed a little too mature, so as to become slightly tough. 
The animals relish such tough green food much better 
after being cut. 

Fodder corn should also be fed with second-crop clover 
when the two are ready at the same time. If fodder corn 
and clover are run ..through a cutter together, even when 
the corn-stalks are large, every part will be eaten clean. 
A very heavy crop of corn is largely benefited by being cut 
into quarter-inch lengths, and if no other green crop, such 
as clover, millet, or vetches, etc., is to be had, then mix 
one-fourth cut clover hay with it, or two quarts of bran, 
or one pound of linseed-meal, or cotton-seed-meal, per 
bushel of cut coru. This will render the corn a profitable 
ration. 



SOILING HORSES. 197 

Sorghum, wlien used as a soiling crop, is even more 
benefited bj being passed through the cutter and reduced 
to very short lengths. This, also, should be mixed with 
other green food, such as clover, millet, orchard grass, 
lucerne, etc., or some dry food as above described. 

The feeder will often be able to feed three or four differ- 
ent green foods at the same time, or he can feed two one 
day and change to two others next day, and he can be 
guided in the selections by the chemical qualities of each, 
and the tables we gave in the last chapter will enable him 
, to determine the proper combination. He need never fear 
of giving too great a variety. 

Soiling Horses. 

This class of stock is thought by many to be quite 
unadapted to the soiling system, especially colts, as they 
require exercise to develop the muscular power; soiling is 
thought to require too close confinement. This arises 
from a misconception of the flexibility of this system. 
Soiling does not, necessarily, require the confinement of 
animals any more than pasturing. It is true that pastur- 
ing furnishes larger fields to range in; but nearly every 
farm can devote a lane running to the wood lot as space 
to exercise in. This lane is necessary for the convenience 
of the farm, and generally furnishes a road to the different 
parts of the tillable land and meadow. This will furnish 
abundant room for colts to make trials of speed, and afford 
all the exercise required to develop muscle. This runway 
is easily fenced so substantially as wholly to prevent the 
colts from jumping, and thus becoming troublesome. We 
have raised a dozen colts in this way, and found them to 
develop in every respect as well as those pastured. That 
colts may be as little confined as possible, racks may be 
arranged under a shed, into which the soiling food may 
be placed, and the colts have access to it at all times. We 



198 FEEDING ANIMALS. 

found this food to work well with brood mares and their 
foals. Having the food of the mares wholly under control, 
their production of milk will be more uniform, and the 
growth of the foals much better, than on pasture. The 
dam requires full feeding upon appropriate food, and this 
may always be given in soiling, as any defect in the succu- 
lence and nutrition of the grasses or other soiling food 
may be supplemented with middlings, oil-meal and oats. 
The foals are also constantly under the eye of the feeder, 
easily become accustomed to handling, and may be taught 
to take other food at a younger age. Early familiarity with 
the attendant and docility are not only favorable to the 
foal's progress in development, but to its easy management 
at the training age. The vigorous, steady and healthy 
growth of colts is most essential to their future value as 
serviceable animals, and, therefore, to the profit of the 
breeder. Soiling offers the most complete control over the 
food and management of the colts, and, therefore, under 
this system they may be grown with much more uniform 
success, and, on land worth fifty or more dollars per acre, 
much cheaper than by pasturing. As we have shown in 
another chapter, the foal responds more quickly to the use 
of cow's milk than any other food after weaning, and this 
may be skimmed milk, after teaching it first to drink new 
milk. The colt being under attention in soiling, this extra 
food may be given with very little labor. From consider- 
able experience we regard the soiling system as well 
adapted to t,he raismg of horses in all stages, from the 
suckling colt to the mature horse. 

Soiling Cattle. 

We have treated incidentally of this subject in previous 
pages, but will here speak of the appropriate arrangement 
of cattle in soiling economically. 

1st. Those who believe that steers should have full 
liberty and freedom of exercise at all times through the 



SOILIXG CATTLE. 199 

summer may arrange a double rack, with a feeding trough 
or manger for grain on each side, under the center of an 
open shed, high enough to drive a wagon under and deliver 
the soiling food into the rack. This rack will accommo- 
date a row of cattle on each side, and may be constructed 
in several ways, but the following is as good as any: 
Construct a platform 4 feet 8 inches wide and 18 inches 
high, of iK-inch plank, and let the two outside planks be 
16 inches wide, and these planks form the bottoms of the 
feeding troughs or mangers. Nail a plank 10 inches wide 
on each edge of these outside planks, and you have a 
manger 8K inches deej). Between these two mangers will 
be a rack, consisting of sticks, round or 1% inches square 
and 4 feet long. Set these up 4 inches apart, 2 feet wide 
at bottom, flaring 4 feet at top. These rack sticks may be 
fastened to the manger at the bottom and between two 
strips of board at the top to form an upper rim, tying 
across from side to side every six feet. The green fodder 
is thrown into this rack, and the cattle eat from either side. 
The grain, or ground-feed ration, if any is given, will be 
placed in the mangers. The greatest objection to this 
mode of feeding is that the master animals may annoy the 
timid ones. The steers may be tied, but this will add 
somewhat to the labor ; or it might be arranged with gates 
to shut in each animal, but most farmers would prefer to 
have them loose. The rack should be long enough to give 
2>^ feet to each animal. A careful feeder may devise 
methods to give the timid animals their share. Pure 
water should be provided near this feeding rack, where 
the cattle may drink at pleasure. 

2dly. Those who have had most experience think a well- 
ventilated stable, with the cattle tied so as to be easy, 
having freedom of action (the tie shown in figure 10, page 
98, or the same somewhat modified and described on a 
future page, is among the best), will give the best result 



200 FEEDING ANIMALS. 

in feeding, as here every animal gets its rations perfectly 
undisturbed, and the ration may be varied to suit the 
particular requirements of the animal. With the tie here 
mentioned, no greater space is required than with stanch- 
ions — say 3 feet 2 to 6 inches for large cattle, the tie 
permitting them to lick themselves and change positions 
at will. They should be arranged upon both sides of a 
feeding-floor, with heads turned to the floor. This afibrds 
the greatest facility for feeding, as both rows of cattle may 
be fed at the same time from a wagon driven along the 
floor. Animals that are reared in this way will take their 
places regularly, and are easily fastened. This feeding- 
floor should be ten feet wide in the clear of the mangers, 
so that a wagon with a hay-rack on may be conveniently 
driven through it. In this case the cattle may be let out 
irom 10 a. m. to 3 p. m. for exercise and water, if water is 
not provided where they stand in the stable. A farm that 
carries on a regular system of stock feeding will have con- 
venient buildings for that purpose, especially in those States 
where cattle are fed in barns. A well-constructed stable is 
also cooler than the open air, and troubled less with flies. 

Under this system the skillful feeder has the condition 
and thrift of his cattle wholly under his control, and his 
profit will consist in giving all the food they can properly 
digest. He may take full advantage of the element of time, 
securing the largest growth in the shortest time, which 
always produces the greatest profit. 

Soiling Cows. 

In feeding cows will be found one of the most important 
uses of the soiling system. To produce milk profitably, 
cows must be full fed constantly whilst in milk, and this 
system furnishes the surest means to that end. It is also 
most important that cows should be kept comfortable — 
that they should have a oool stable in summer and a warm 



SOILING COWS. 2Ul 

one in winter. If cows are fed in stable in hot weather, 
then it should be at least as cool as in the open air, and 
this requires that the Walls of the stable should be non- 
conductors. A thin wooden wall — that is, a frame, merely 
boarded — will make a hot stable, the heat of the cows' 
bodies assisting in raising the temperature. If made of 
wood, the wall should be double, and the space filled with 
sawdust, tanbark, or corn-cobs, laid in straight and com- 
pact, and then, being Avell ventilated, it will be cool. A 
concrete wall, such as has been described in the chapter 
on stock barns, will make a very cool stable in summer and 
a warm one in winter, as it is a very poor conductor of 
heat and cold. The cows should be arranged the same as 
described for the fattening cattle, with heads turned to the 
feeding-floor. If wholly soiled, the cows should be fed 
four times — at 6 and 9 a. m. and 3 and 6 p. m., giving air 
and exercise between 10 a. m. and 3 p. m. It is particularly 
important to look after the condition and yield of each 
cow, and, being fed in stable, where each cow eats unmo- 
lested, it is easily done. This affords such control over 
the food of each cow that her capacity for milk production 
can be tested, and, after a thorough trial, can be passed 
upon and selected to keep or be discarded. 

We have had many years' experience in soiling cows, and 
find that healthy, vigorous cows of 900 lbs. will eat 100 lbs. 
of succulent clover or grass, the same of green oats, green 
rye, or peas, 85 lbs. of millet or Hungarian grass in blos- 
som, and, there being more water in green fodder-corn, 
they will eat 100 to 125 lbs. of this. These rations are the 
average for a herd of cows of 900 lbs. weight. The loads 
of green food were weighed upon the scales for many 
weeks, to find the average amount of such food required. 
But some cows eat considerably more than others, and the 
feeder must have judgment to determine the wants of each. 
Milk is made from the daily food, and one cow, yielding 



203 FEEDING ANIMALS. 

much more than another of tlie same weight, requires 
more food to balance the account. It is very easy in soil- 
ing to add a small grain ration, and this is especially 
necessary if green corn is fed, for this food is not rich 
enough in albuminoids to feed alone for any considei'able 
length of time. It should be fed with some nitrogenous 
grain or feed, such as wheat-bran, oats, oil-meal, or pea- 
meal, clover, peas, or millet. But it is easy, when soiling 
is undertaken systematically, to grow a variety of crops, 
so that corn need seldom be fed alone. When cows are 
properly soiled, they yield a much more uniform quantity 
of milk through the whole season, and thus produce a 
larger aggregate yield. 

It is better to have pure running water within reach of 
the cow as she stands in stable, or, at least, in a trough in 
the manger, which may be opened for her twice or more 
per day. 

We regard it as important also to place cows upon a 
self-cleaning iron platform, because, standing so much in 
stable, it is very difficult to keep them clean in any other 
way. This self-cleaning stable was illustrated and de- 
scribed on pages 97 to 101. It is not expensive, and is so 
durable that it will save its cost in labor many times over. 
Cows may be soiled in rack, under a shed, as described 
for feeding cattle, and milked in the yard, as many 
dairymen still do; but the stable is preferable, for the 
reasons given above. 

Soiling Sheep. 

Some will regard soiling sheep as quite impracticable, 
thinking that these animals cannot bear the necessary con- 
finement. A single small field will not do for sheep to run 
on, as for cattle; and, hence, they think sheep cannot be 
soiled. But this opinion is not well founded. They may 
be soiled as saftly us any other stock. It is only necessary 



SOILING SHEEP. 203 

that tliey be kept in small flocks, and changed frequently 
to fresh ground. This can be done by using a portable 
hurdle fence. The fields first cut over for soiling may be 
used to hurdle sheep upon. Let the sheep be kept in flocks 
of fifty to one hundred. Surround a plat, ten rods square, 
with a movable hurdle fence, and on this plat may be 
placed fifty to one hundred sheep, to be fed in racks on each 
side of the field. These racks may be made very light, and 
thus be easily moved. The sheep are fed on this plat one 
week, and then removed to the plat adjoining. By having 
extra hurdle fence for three sides of the field, this may be 
placed so as to surround a new field on one side, and the 
sheep then let into the adjoining plat. This gives at least 
one rod of fresh ground to each sheep per week; and the 
droppings will make a slight top-dressing of manure, and, 
with one bushal of plaster sown over this, to prevent evap- 
oration of its volatile elements, will be found to increase 
the next cutting. This may be carried on across the field; 
and by feeding the sheep all the green food they can eat, 
they will not injure the growth of the second cutting. The 
greatest difficulty in this plan is in furnishing water to the 
slieep. If this is obviated by having springs or a stream of 
water in the field thus used, everything will work well. We 
have tried this plan, and found no practical difficulty — the 
sheep doing excellently well, and remaining healthy. 

The reader will see how many advantages may attend 
this mode of feeding sheep. The different classes of sheep 
may thus be separated, and each put under the course of 
feeding desired to accomplish the special purpose aimed at. 
Those intended for market, may be fed specially to that 
end ; and, having the absolute control of the ration, they 
may be pushed as rapidly as the feeder chooses. A small 
grain ration may be given with the green food, combining 
it so as to produce the most rapid fattening. This plan 
also keeps the sheep constantly under the eye of the shepherd, 



204 FEEDIKG AKIMALS. 

and their condition is much more under his control than 
when in pasture. 

In soiling sheep, the grasses must be cut in a more tender 
and succulent condition than for cattle or horses. Meadow 
grasses should be cut when from 6 to 10 inches high, before 
fairly heading out, and clover the same. If clover is 
allowed to come into blossom, the sheep will only eat the 
heads, leaves, and small branches, rejecting the body 
of the stalks. The only way to induce them to eat 
clover in blossom is to cut it all into one-half inch lengths 
in a straw cutter, and then feed in troughs. In this form 
sheep will eat it clean. 

Soiling offers the best plan for raising lambs for market, 
as the dam may be fed in the best way to produce a large 
yield of milk, and the lambs furnished with such addi- 
tional food as will push them the fastest for an early market, 
at which the best prices are obtained. We regard soiling as 
specially adapted to sheep-feeding where lambs and mutton 
are principally depended upon. 

As to the matter of health, the English practice of fold- 
ing sheep upon turnips whilst they eat them out of the 
ground, confines them longer on the same space than this 
proposed plan of soiling ; and, therefore, it need not be 
feared that their health will suffer under such confinement 
with the weekly change. 

In the hottest part of the season there should be some 
shelter to screen them from the sun. A simple canvas 
awning will answer every purpose, and is easily put up and 
removed. This will completely modify the sun's rays, and 
add much to their comfort. This plan of feeding reduces 
the labor of delivering the food to the sheep, since the soil- 
ing crops are near. From our experiments in soiling sheep, 
we became strongly impressed with its importance, espe- 
cially on small farms and near good markets for mutton. 



exterminating weeds. 205 

Soiling Exterminates Weeds. 

We wish to emphasize this point, as it is of great practi- 
cal importance. In many parts of the country noxious 
weeds almost render the land valueless for cultivated crops, as 
the weeds occupy so much of the soil that there is only room 
left to raise a crop adequate to pay the labor. In a proper 
system of soiling, the land is not suffered to mature weeds. 
The annuals are generally killed by the first cutting, and if 
not, always by the second. The perennials are cut before 
the seed forms, thus preventing any seed ripening to grow 
new plants; and as all the successive crops are cut green, 
no seed can mature. The soil may have several crops of 
weed seeds in it ; but whenever they come to the surface 
and grow, the first cutting kills them. Canada thistles, 
being cut before seeding, are soon killed ; and if seed 
exists in the soil, the new crop that grows after plowing 
will also be killed before seeding ; and a few years will 
exterminate them. As all the various weeds will be eaten 
when cut in the green, succulent state, it may be said that 
the weeds will pay for their own extermination. 

Fields that are infested with the worst weeds may be 
selected to cultivate a few years in soiling crops, and thus 
rendered clean. Under the strict soiling system no plant 
could grow, the seed of which was not sown, after the land 
once became clean. The white daisy and plantain are even 
worse, if possible, than Canada thistles, but frequent plow- 
■ings and cutting before seeding will end these also. Soil- 
ing may be considered the only feasible system of ridding 
our fields of weeds, and this alone would, in some localities, 
render it profitable. 

How TO Introduce Soiling. 

A good system is not appropriate for all farms. A farm 
turned up at an angle of 45 degrees; covered with rocks, or 
a newly-cleared one, covered with stumps, is not adapted to 



206 FEEDING ANIMALS. 

soiling. There is mucli land that can only be profitably pas- 
tured. It is only comparatively level, arable land that permits 
the introduction of soiling; and on cheap, level western 
prairie, where labor is more valuable than land, soiling will 
not pay till land rises to a value of fifty dollars per acre. 
This system may, however, be partially used even in hilly 
Vermont. Many farms have some very rough fields, which 
can only be pastured; but a large part of the farm being 
arable and fertile, crops may very profitably be grown for 
partial feeding when pastures are short. These farms, with 
one-half in hill pastures, having the other half in rich, 
alluvial soil, may double the stock kept, by using one-fourth 
of the tillable land for soiling crops. The increase in stock 
will so increase the manure as to double the winter fodder, 
and thus carry them through the year. In this way many 
farms, having a portion of soiling land, may carry a larger 
stock than other farms, all arable, on which stock is only 
pastured. But we do not advise a siidden change from 
pasturing to soiling, even on the farm best adapted to it. 
It requires preparation to change from one system to the 
other, and this preparation should be carefully considered 
and fully made. The want of such joreparation has usually 
caused great disappointment ; and we therefore advise that 
only a small addition should be made to the stock at first, 
leaving the pasture nearly the same, but providing clover 
and a small allowance of the most important soiling crops,, 
thus giving the stock what they can eat besides the pasture, 
and then reducing the pasture year by year, as the new sys- 
tem is better understood. Dairymen will find soiling to 
grow rapidly in their confidence, if they will provide this 
green food for their cows at evening and morning in the 
stable, allowing them to run in the pasture through the 
day. This will keep the pasture in good condition; and 
giving the cows full feed, they will give an increased yield 
of milk through the season. They will soon see how much 



WINTEK SOILIlSrG. ^7 

they can reduce the pasture, and how well adapted their 
fields are for jjroducing green crops. Dairymen are better 
prepared than other stock-feeders to introduce this system, 
from the j)ractice they have had in raising and feeding fod- 
der-corn in times of short pasture. The change may be so 
gradual as not to interfere with the general business of the 
farm, and whether the system be partial or full soiling, 
there will be no disappointment. 

Winter Soiling — Ensilage. 

France, Germany, and some other portions of Europe, 
have practiced summer-soiling for more than a century. But, 
although they were able to supply their cattle and other 
stock with green, succulent food during the warm season, 
yet they were obliged to cure grass and other green food to 
be given during the winter season. This seriously checked 
the growth of their animals and also added to the exiDcnse 
of keeping them. It is not at all surprising that great 
effort should be made to overcome this obstacle to steady 
growth. They could raise any desired amount of green 
food, and if any plan could be invented for keeping it in its 
succulent condition, soiling could be continued throughout 
the year. Some parties, who desired to preserve the refuse 
beet-pulp of the beet-sugar works for future feeding, hit 
upon the plan of pitting it like potatoes, and found that it 
could be preserved in this way for many months. It became 
evident that the only condition necessary was to exclude the 
air, to prevent fermentation. That principle had long 
become familiar in the preservation of perishable fruits in 
hermetically-sealed cans. The only thing to be devised was 
an economical jslan of excluding the air. The pit answered 
for beet-pulp, and next green corn was pitted, and found to 
come out with only a moderate amount of fermentation. 
Long trenches were dug in dry earth, five feet wide at the 
bottom, seven feet at the top, five feet deep^ and as long 



208 FEEDIKG AKIMALS. 

as was required for storage of the green corn. The green 
corn was at first placed lengthwise and flat in the trench,, 
trodden in thoroughly, carried up above the surface of the 
ground three or four feet, and straw placed over the to]3 ; 
then the earth thrown out of the trench was packed 
upon this green corn, and, as it settled, more earth was 
thrown on to prevent cracking so as to admit the air. 

These rough pits were found to preserve the fodder with 
most of its original succulence, and although more fermen- 
tation had occurred than was desirable, yet cattle ate it 
greedily, compared with what they did hay. This mode 
was continued for several years in Germany, and was 
adopted by many in France. It soon became evident that 
the more solidly it was packed into the pit the better it was 
preserved. The next step in improvement consisted in run- 
ning the fodder through a straw-cutter, and cutting it into 
short lengths of half an inch or less. In this state it packed 
much more solidly, and was thus rendered less penetrable 
by air, and much more could be stored in the same space. 
When put up in this way, and much care taken to preserve 
a solid crust of earth over it, (he fodder came out in much 
better condition, frequently only undergoing saccharine fer- 
mentation. Even this rough way of preserving the green 
food was considered a great improvement over drying. 
But a most important advance upon this system has been 
made by Mons. A. Goffart, of France. He desired some- 
thing more certain and uniform in its operations than the 
covering of earth.' He built two parallel walls, air-tight, 
and as far apart as was convenient — from 10 to 15 feet, and 
8 to 12 feet deep. The ensilage is packed between these 
walls and trodden in closely to the top. Wishing to get rid 
of the earth, which was liable to get mixed with the feed, he 
hit upon a cover of planks, placed across the silo, fitting to 
the wall, but moving down as the body of the green ensi- 
lage settled. To keep this plank cover pressing on the top. 



ENSILAGE. 209 

he weighted the planks with about 500 pounds to the square 
yard. His movable weight-cover, which gave continuotis 
2)ressure upon the green ensilage, and thus excluded the 
air, was the last improvement that he regards as insuring 
the uniform success of this mode of preserving green fod- 
der. M. Goffart has tested this system so thoroughly, not 
only as to its success in preserving the quality of the green 
food, but as to the effect of the ensilage upon the health 
and growth of hundreds of cattle, aud so many other most 
intelligent French farmers have verified his results, that we 
are forced to regard the practicability of the system as 
established — that all the soiling crops that we have described 
may be preserved in silo, at just the point in their growth 
when they are most succulent and nutritious — and that 
these green foods may be produced upon all stock farms in 
the settled portions of the country, in such abundance, 
that all our stock may be fed upon the most succulent 
grasses throughout the winter. There may be many details 
in the system yet to be perfected and improved, but all the 
important facts are well established, and their probable 
effects may be considered. 

1st. This discovery continues the soiling system through- 
out the year. A continuous succession of green food may 
be presented to our cattle and other stock during their 
whole lives. This will off'er facilities for producing a much 
more uniform growth in all our stock. It simplifies our 
feeding operations, and when fully put in practice will 
supersede all efforts to render hay and other coarse fodder 
more digestible by cooking. The succulence of ensilage is 
greater than we can ever hope to produce by cooking. Its 
digestibility must be very similar to grass eaten in pasture, 
provided it is preserved at a proper stage of its growth. 

2dly. This system will enable farmers to carry more 
stock with less grain, and thus save much labor in cultiva- 
tion of grain crops intended as food for stock. The good 



210 FEEDING ANIMALS. 

book says " all flesh is grass ; " and feeders often find that 
cattle take on flesh as rapidly on fresh pasture-grasses as 
under grain-feeding. Grain makes the flesh of cattle more 
solid than that from grass; and grain will always be an im- 
portant addition in meat and milk production, but the 
proportion of it profitably used will be much less in winter- 
feeding on mixed ensilage than on hay. 

3dly. Winter-feeding upon ensilage will require less 
labor than the old system. The labor of cutting crops 
green and storing in silo will be less than that now 
bestowed on cutting, curing and storing in the barn. And, 
whereas a very large percentage of hay is badly damaged 
by storms and over-ripening, green fodder may always be 
cut and properly stored in the silo during the worst seasons. 
It is found that all the succulence and moisture are required 
to preserve the green food in the best condition. It is ready 
to feed directly from the silo without any preparation, it 
having been cut into short lengths when stored. This sys- 
tem insures the best preparation of the food, requiring the 
least labor in its mastication, because, in order to preserve 
it best, it must be cut into half-inch lengths, so as to pack 
most sol-idly and exclude air. 

4thly. The silos in which to store green food will cost 
less than barns to store hay, as it is compressed so solidly 
as to occupy much less space. A cubic foot of ensilage 
weighs about 45 pounds, or about 12 tons of ensilage would 
only occupy the spa<3e of one ton of hay; but as the ensi- 
lage will contain much more water, two and a half tons of 
this will only equal one ton of hay in dry food ; yet the 
ensilage will still occupy only one-fourth of the space 
accorded to dry food. 

5thly. This system will be applicable to the whole coun- 
try — may be as successful in Maine as in Virginia. Per- 
haps it will be more prized in the colder States, as the 



ENSILAGE. 211 

season of winter-feeding is there much longer and more 
trying to the constitution of the animals. 

In the colder Northern States cattle make excellent prog- 
ress on good pasture, but much of this is lost during the 
long, cold winter, when they are confined to hay and coarse 
fodder. Grain is there often thought too expensive for 
feeding growing cattle, but with ensilage, these cattle, in 
warm stables, will make a summer growth all the year 
round. This system put in active operation, would have a 
remarkable influence on the production of meat, milk and 
wool, in the Middle and New England States. These 
States could then fully supply the home demand for meat. 
Our exports of animal products amounted, for the year 1881, 
to nearly 1175,000,000. These exports are constantly increas- 
ing, and as we improve our processes of preserving meats, and 
our system of transportation of live animals and dressed 
carcasses (the latter is likely to be the princi^oal mode of 
transportation in the future), the demand is likely to 
grow in proportion to our facilities. We believe the most 
profitable part of our farming for the next fifty years will 
be in the production of meat, milk and wool. An increase 
in animal products means an improvement in our system of 
farming — an increase in the value of our landed property. 
Grain-raising, without stock, means a constantly deteriora- 
ting soil, and an inevitable impoverishment of our resources. 
This system of ensilage may be made the means of carry- 
ing a large proportion of stock in ^rain-raising States, as 
every acre properly treated under this system will represent, 
for cattle-feeding, three acres under the old system. The 
increase of manure will give a larger yield of grain on two- 
thirds the number of acres. The system of soiling, with 
the addition of ensilage for winter-feeding, is rounded out 
into full proportions, and gives a hundred-acre farmer as 
great a capacity for keeping stock as the three-hundred-acre 
farmer heretofore. 



212 FEEDING ANIMA.LS. 

SlLOS. 

We have above spoken of the recent improvements of 
this system of ensihige, and some have regarded it as a re- 
cent discovery, but it had been practiced by the Austro- 
Ilnngarian farmers, in their rude way, more than 50 years 
before the French had turned their attention to it. The 
Hungarians pitted their green fodder in the earth. Ac- 
cording to some of the early Eoman agricultural writers, 
grain and fodder were pitted by the farmers of Italy at an 
early period of history. The principle involved in the en- 
silage system is, therefore, far from being new. The Hun- 
garian and German silo was simply a pit dug in a dry place 
in the earth, 8 to 10 feet wide at the top, 6 to 8 feet at the 
bottom, 6 to 8 feet deep, and as long as suited the conven- 
ience of the makers. 

The green fodder, rye, rape, vetch, clover, seradella, or 
grass, etc., was laid in the pit, crosswise, trodden firmly, 
and pitted three or four feet above the surface of the 
ground, like the cone of a potato heap. This top was 
covered with straw, leaves or brush, and the earth thrown 
from the pit was banked upon and over the top to the 
depth of 18 to 34 inches. This covering of earth was com- 
pacted so firmly as to exclude the air, furnished a heavy 
cover which settled with the fodder in the pit ; but in set- 
tling it was liable to crack and let in the air, so that fre- 
quent atbention was required to fill these craoks and com- 
press the earth. So the improvements made by Goifart 
were the natural growth from the primitive method. We 
mention these facts rather to strengthen the impression oi 
merit in the system, for, having been in practical use for a 
thousand or more years, the question of economic value in 
the preserved fodder must be considered as settled. 

The present form of silo is a very great improvement 
upon the earth silo, and the ensilage must be correspond- 



SILOS. 213 

ingly improved. When the air-tight wall silo with its con- 
stant pressure cover is operated expertly, the green food 
should not pass beyond the saccharine stage of fermentation, 
and when taken from the silo and exposed to the air, the 
alcoholic fermentation soon begins. In this state the en- 
silage (preserved fodder) is in its best condition for feeding 
and its food value is probably equal to what it was at the 
time of packing in the silo — that is, its changes have im- 
proved its digestibility as much as fermentation has reduced 
its weight of dry substance. Some have figured a consider- 
able increase in food value, but this would be equivalent to 
the production of something from nothing, except so far as 
an increase in digestibility might occur from the chemical 
action of fermentation. 

Plan of Silo. 

That our readers may get a clear idea of the plan of 
building silos, in convenient form, of concrete or other 
durable material, we give the outline of a ground plan for 
a triple silo — the inside of each being 16 feet wide by 33 
feet long and 16 feet deep. 

We give plan for triple silo because many farms require 
storage of this capacity (about 185 tons for each silo, or 
555 tons), and if less storage is needed two may be built, 
or one, if that is all that is needed. If more capacity than 
one is required and less than two of this size, then it would 
be better to build two side by side 25 feet long, rather than 
to build one 50 feet long. The latter would take 23 feet 
more in length of wall ; besides, the two silos side by side 
would be more convenient, the doors being near together. 
The roof on this ground plan would span the silos length- 
wise, and another silo could be added at any time, requir- 
ing only one side, or long wall, and two end walls, and the 
roof can be extended over the new silo. This plan, then, 
permits one to be built as a trial silo, and others to be 



214 



FEEDING ANIMALS. 



added at any time without any change of plan. This form 
of silo may be placed with the door end near the drive- 
way into the basement stable. A track laid from the silo 
door to and along the center of the feeding-floor of the 
stable, on which a car can be run to the silo and the ensi- 
lage delivered to the animals on either side of the floor. 
This car may hold one feed for the whole stock, and be 
moved on the track by one man. 




Fig. 16.— Triple Silo. 
These silos are intended to be built of concrete, and the 
plan shows how the walls are constructed. S S S S rep- 
resent the standards — 3 x 6-inch scantling — placed inside 
the proposed walls, edges to the wall, making them stifler 
in holding the plank boxing. These standards are placed 
mostly in pairs (one on each side of the wall) and three 
inches further apart than the wall is to be thick, and reach- 
ing some inches above the top of the intended wall — 17 
feet long for a wall 16 feet high. The pairs of standards 
are placed about 8 feet apart. The boxing planks (repre- 
sented by the lines inside of the standard) may most con- 



BUILDING THE SILO. 215 

veuiently be 1% inches thick, 14 inches wide and 16 feet 
Jong, except those on the outside of the end walls, which 
must be 17>^ feet long. The walls, being 16 feet high, 
should be 16 inches thick, if made of concrete. Concrete 
walls are stronger than the same thickness of stone wall, 
laid by a mason. The doors are represented by the letters 
d d d. The boxing plank extend across these doors. 

BUILDIN"G THE SiLO. 

For convenience of illling, the silo may be sunk half its 
depth or more in the earth, where the situation permits 
this to be done with good and easy drainage. But if the 
soil is springy, or if the silo is to be sunk in slate or shale 
rock which permits the water to pass freely through it, so 
as to produce a pressure of water on the bottom, it is dif- 
ficult to make the bottom water-tight without cutting a 
free drain 12 inches from the outside of the wall and some 
inches below the bottom, so as to conduct the water around 
and off. It is better not to go deeper in any case than can 
be easily drained. It is also most convenient not to have 
the bottom of the silo below the level of the feeding floor 
of the basement stable, unless the ensilage is to be taken 
out at the tojD, run into the upper floor of the barn and 
dumped through uj^on the feeding floor of the basement 
where the stock is kept. If two to four feet are excavated, 
this earth can be used to bank up on the back end of the 
silos for an elevated drive-way for setting the cutter or for 
delivering the green fodder. The excavation should be 
at least 18 inches beyond the proposed wall for convenience 
of working. Having got the bottom leveled, set the stand- 
ards 19 inches apart (this will give a space between the 
boxing planks of 16 inches), care being taken that the 
edge of the inside standard next the boxing be straight. 
To hold the standards firmly in place, nail a lath across 
the under ends ; this will prevent them from spreading, 



216 FEEDING ANIMALS. 

leaving the lath under the Wall and offering no obstruction 
to the removal of the standards after the wall is built. 
Now a bracket should be nailed across the top and the pair 
of standards set accurately plumb on the inside edge and 
solidly stay-lathed in that position. It is well to stay-lath 
across the top of the silo from standard to standard besides 
bracing from the outside ; for it is of the utmost imjjort- 
ance that the standards should not move, as that will 
throw the wall out of plumb. When the standards are all 
set about the proposed walls, and the boxing planks are all 
placed, we are ready for 

Peeparing the Concrete. 

The first tier on the bottom of the wall should be made 
wholly with water-lime concrete, as follows: Mix well one 
part of Akron or Rosendale cement with three parts of 
fine sand, while dry. You may now mix in also three or 
four parts of clean gravel ; now mix into thin mortar and 
place a layer of this mortar, two or three inches thick, in 
the bottom of the wall-box, and if you have cobble or 
rough stones, or any irregular stones picked from the field, 
bed these in the mortg.r, taking care not to let them come 
quite out to the boxing plank. Use all the stone you can 
get in, taking care to have a layer of mortar between them; 
tamp it all down solid so as to have no spaces in the wall. 
Fill the boxing to the top, using a layer of mortar and a 
layer of stone alternately. 

For the next layer of wall, and all above, if you desire to 
use some quick-lime, which is cheaper, then mix as follows: 
One part of cement with six of fine sand, while dry. Mix 
in four parts of gravel as before. Have a vat of quick- 
lime, well slaked under water, standing near, and use this 
thin milk of lime to wet up and mix into mortar the water- 
lime, sand and gravel. Make a calculation so as to get 
about one part of dry quick-lime to eight of sand used. 



PREPARIIirG THE CON"CRETE. 217 

Being mixed up into thin mortar, it will not be diflBcnlt to 
get the milk of quick-lime mixed thoroughly through the 
mass of mortar. The quick-lime should be slaked under 
water several days before using. This quick-lime will im- 
prove the walls and when hard will be water-proof. This 
will give, if stones are also used, about one part of water- 
lime to 12 or 14 of sand, gravel and stone, and one of 
quick-lime to about 15 of other materials. This wall will 
be cheaper than one built wholly with water-lime. 

But if the silo is sunk in the earth, it is better to use 
only water-lime to 12 inches above the ground, although 
we have seen such mixed-lime wall stand well below 
ground; yet the quick-lime does not assist in standing 
moisture. If built wholly of water-lime, the instructions 
for the first layer should be followed in all the other layers. 
The boxing planks, after the first layer has become hard, 
are raised just 12 inches, leaving a lap of 2 inches on the 
wall below. The mortar is then put in the wall-box and 
stone bedded in as before, and the tiers are carried up in 
this way to the top. The standards may be kept from 
spreading in the middle by having a movable clamp 
hooked across some feet above the boxing. 

Plates 8 X 10 inches are placed on the top of the silo 
walls, and when the boxes are leveled for the top layers 
of the walls, three-quarter-inch bolts, 21 inches long, with 
screw or nut on the upper end and a square bend on the 
lower end, are used. Place three of these in each long 
wall, one in the center of the wall and one near each end, 
12 inches from the end wall. Let the bolt go 12 inches 
into the wall. To hold these bolts while filling around 
them, bore a hole in a narrow strip of board and tack this 
board across the top of the box just where the bolt is to be 
placed, the upper end of the bolt being put through the 
hole in the board, standing perpendicularly and S% inches 
above the box, so as to take the plate. These bolts will 
10 



218 FEEDING ANIMALS. 

be in line, so that holes may easily be bored in the plates 
to receive them ; or, instead of one plate 8 x 10 inches, it 
is better to place two 8x8 plates side by side, and both 
just reach across the wall. In this case the bolts in the 
wall come between the two sticks. In this case the two 
plates are bolted together at each end and in the middle. 

These plates are framed for short posts 4 or 5 feet long, 
upon which 6 x 6-inch plates are placed for the roof to rest 
upon. This space between the top of the wall and the 
roof is usually occupied by swinging doors, which are 
closed after the silo is filled, but it may all be boarded up 
except such doors as are wanted for filling the silo ; and 
when it is desired to get as much as possible into the silo, 
temporary boarding is carried above the wall even with the 
inside and the ensilage is piled above the wall two or three 
feet before the weighted cover is put ou, and the com- 
pressed ensilage only sinks a very little below the top of 
the wall. 

The inside of the walls of the silo is given an even coat 
of cement, thoroughly troweled down. The bottom is also 
cemented so as to make the whole air and water-tight. 
And should it be desired to give a sandstone color to the 
outside wall, this can be done by mixing one-fiftieth part 
of oxide of iron with the cement and plaster the outside. 
The doors should be double, one hung inside and the other 
outside. The inside door should be hung so as to shut 
even with the inside wall, be in two parts, and swing out. 
Felting should be placed on the jams, so that the inside 
doors will shut air-tight. The outside door should be made 
in three parts, fastened together with hinges, the upper 
part only 10 inches wide, and should be fitted to the out- 
side jams of the door so as to be screwed fast, one section 
at a time, beginning with the lower section. The spax^e 
between the two doors should be filled Avitji sawdust, 
packed in, and the upper section is so narrow that the 



E]S"SILAGE IN" FKITED STATES. 219 

sawdust can be packed closely to the top, and thus make 
the doorway air-tight. The concrete wall should be built 
for 10 cents per cubic foot, and the silo need not cost 
over $1,50 per ton capacity. 

Pkogkess of Eksilage in United States. 

Having considered the rise and progress of this system 
in Europe, let us see what progress it is making in this 
country. Mr. Francis Morris, of Maryland, some six 
years ago began pitting green corn in the German fashion, 
and feeding upon ensilage for a short time in winter some 
300 head of cattle. His was green corn ensilage only, and 
his report was very favorable to its economy. He has 
continued this practice up to the present, and still gives 
favorable reports. Perhaps Mr. 0. B. Potter, of Sing Sing, 
N. Y., was the first in this country to build a masonry silo, 
and he began to preserve corn ensilage about 1877, using a 
covering of earth to compress the ensilage. His ensilage 
progressed farther in fermentation than is generally ap- 
proved, but still was found, as he reports, a very economical 
food for stock. He has since wisely used clover to ensilage 
with corn, so as to furnish a better-balanced ration than 
corn alone, and after some two years' trial gives a favorable 
report. His earth covering does not so effectually exclude 
the air as the weighed plank covering. 

In 1879 Dr. J. M. Bailey, of Billerica, Mass., built the 
first double si1o of concrete masonry, and stored about 125 
tons of corn ensilage, which, although somewhat belated 
in storing, gave him much satisfaction in feeding. His 
rejiort stimulated inquiry and experiment in the new 
process. 

At the beginning of 1880 this process was much discussed 
by the agricultural press, and the result was the building 
of some fifty or more silos in different parts of the country, 
most of them substantial, and many of them in the most 



230 FEEDIKG AKIMALS. 

durable form. This was most remarkable progress for a 
new system to make in a single season. Probably 8,000 
tons of corn ensilage were preserved. The reports from 
these various experiments were made to the agricultural 
papers during the next six months, nearly all of them 
favorable, many of them very enthusiastic, as to its econ- 
omy and value. Some very extravagant estimates were 
made as to the tons of corn raised upon an acre, but these 
estimates were soon reduced to solid fact by the measure- 
ment of the compressed contents of the crops in the silos. 
Forty-six pounds were found to be the weight of a cubic foot 
of ensilage after compression under 500 pounds to the square 
yard, and the contents of the silo were easily measured, 
and thus the yield per acre determined. The yields noted 
ranged from 20 to 33 tons of green corn per acre. Thirty 
tons may be considered an excellent yield of green corn. 
This is equal to about five tons of water-free food, which 
is nearly five times the average yield of dry food per acre 
of our ordinary meadows. But it must be noted that the 
dry food of corn ensilage is not as valuable per weight as 
that from meadow grasses. 

An Ensilage Congress was held in New York in January, 
1882, attended by a body of very intelligent men, and 
reports were made from something like 100 different 
experiments, and these reports were almost wholly favor- 
able. It is true the experiments were few of them carried 
out with as much accuracy as is desirajale, but the general 
tenor of them was strong evidence of the probable success 
of the system. The Commissioner of Agriculture also took 
the testimony of about one hundred persons who had built 
and filled silos and fed the ensilage to the close of 1882, 
and published it in a pamphlet of 71 pages ; and in this 
the reports were nearly all favorable to the economy of the 
system. The Commissioner says: "There is hardly a 
doubt expressed on this point — certainly not a dissenting 
opinion." 



COST OF ENSILAGE. 221 

It must be admitted that the success of the silos built 
up to the present time, in the ensilage of green corn, has 
been yery remarkable, and has given this new system a 
respectable standing in American agriculture ; but the 
final verdict upon the system can only be given when it 
shall be aj^plied practically to the preservation of our 
meadow grasses, and thus prove itself worthy of being 
considered a system in stock feeding. 

Cost of Ensilage. 

Mr. August Goffart states that he is able to take the 
corn growing in a field, cut it, haul it to the silo, run it 
through the cutter, pack and cover it in th silo, for one 
franc per ton — a little less than 20 cents. This cannot be 
done in this country, because our labor wages are more 
than double those in France. What, then, is the whole 
cost of producing and ensilaging one ton of corn? Whit- 
man & Burrell estimate it at 80 cents per ton. Mr. Avery 
estimates the cost of harvesting, hauling, running through 
a cutter, 25acking in a silo and covering at 1200 for 300 
tons, or 66 cents per ton. Dr. Tanner, of Orange County, 
N. Y., estimates the cost of harvesting and putting in the 
silo complete 150 tons at 75 cents per ton. Mr. Chaffee, 
of the same county, who put up ensilage for 30 cows, 
estimates the whole cost of raising corn and storing in the 
silo at 12 per ton, and this he considers very cheap feed. 
The whole cost of raising corn and putting it in the silo 
has been estimated by some half dozen others at from $1 
to $2 per ton. If we take the latter figure as approxi- 
mating to the real cost, and if we estimate three tons of 
•)roperly-kept corn ensilage as equal in feeding value to one 
ton of good hay, then we find it as cheap as hay at $6 per 
ton in the barn. 

But the great advantage to the small farmer in corn 
I' u silage is, that he may produce as much cattle food upon 



222 FEEDING AKIMALS. 

one acre of corn as upon four to six acres in meadow ; yet 
the drawback to this view is, that the meadow produces a 
complete cattle food, whilst corn is not a complete food, 
but must be fed with other nitrogenous food to obtain its 
full value. 

The conclusion, then, must be that all the grasses, in- 
cluding corn, supplemented by the clovers and other legu- 
minous plants, must go into the silo together, and these 
furnish complete rations for the production of meat, milk 
and wool. The labor bestowed per ton in ensilaging the 
grass.es and grains, in the more succulent state, will be 
even less than for corn, because the former can be more 
easily cut by the mowing-machine and handled by the 
horse-rake and hay-loader, or even with the fork. 

It is also quite probable that the grasses, in the fit con- 
dition for ensilaging, may be put in the silo with less labor 
than they can be cured and put in the barn. 

The larger digestibility of succulent grass over that of 
cured hay will certainly be an ample remuneration for this 
new method of preserving it. It is quite true, however, 
that by some small German experiments it appears that 
grass, after carefully drying, is as digestible as in the succu- 
lent condition ; but when these experimenters seek to gen- 
eralize from these few and exceptional cases, founding upon 
them a general axiom that green food loses none of its 
digestibility by drying, let us oppose to this the great gen- 
eral fact that cattle grow and fatten rapidly and profitably 
upon the succulent grasses, but cannot be profitably fat- 
tened upon the dried grasses or hay. Our meadows are 
usually stocked with nearly the same combination of 
grasses as our pastures, but who would assert that a full 
ration of the best hay would produce as much milk or lay 
on as much flesh as the best pasture ? Such facts, open to 
the general observation of all intelligent feeders, are not to 
be upset by a German experiment upon two sheep ! 



a complete ration^. 233 

Ensilage as a Complete Ration. 

Conceding that the system of ensilage, which we have 
described, will preserve the grasses in a comparatively fresh 
state, how shall this process be applied to general stock- 
feeding, making a complete system by which animals may 
be grown, yield milk, and be fattened ? 

Ensilage, as generally discussed in this country, has been 
used to signify preserved green corn. This single food is 
quite inadequate to the complex wants of the animal sys- 
tem. It is deficient in albuminoids to nourish the muscu- 
lar system, and deficient in the phosphates to build the 
bones. Yet it is a very valuable ingredient in the ration 
of animals because of the large weight grown upon an 
acre, and because it is relished by all our farm animals. 
Some of the grasses and clovers are rich in the elements in 
which corn is deficient. To make a complete ensilage ra- 
tion only requires a proper combination of green grasses 
and clovers with green corn. Corn having the least proj^or- 
tion of albuminoids, can seldom be used for more than half 
of the ration. In the table on next page we give some of 
the most important of the green foods for ensilaging, and 
give only the water and digestible nutrients in each. 

There are many other grasses not mentioned in this 
table, that may also be used ; in fact, all grasses, in their 
succulent state, make the very best ensilage, and all succu- 
lent leguminous plants, may be ensilaged with profit ; but 
this table contains all the plants that will usually be chosen 
for ensilage. The two German plants, esparsette and sera- 
della, have not been grown much in this country, but, 
from the few trials, bid fair to be valuable ensilage plants. 
Erom this list a prop-er ration can be combined for growing 
young animals, for fattening animals, for producing milk, 
and growing wool. No one can doubt that these green 
foods, properly combined, contain every element in the 
right proportion for all purposes of stock feeding. Where 



224 



FEEDIIirG AITIMALS. 



these grasses are found in perfection in pasture the feeder 
relies upon them to produce the highest results. 







Digestible 
nutkibnts. 


6 

'a 
u 

> 

'C 

"3 




FoDDKB Plants. 


05 

2 

O 

a 

a 

3 
< 


1 
•a 
>» 
.a 
6 

o 




fi. 

o 
o 

1- 
<o 
o. 
o 
a 

> 


Maize fermented in silo; average of 11 
analyses 


8S.0 
79. 3 
82.0 
82.0 
75.3 
87.0 
77.3 
74.0 
81.0 
76.0 
80.0 
80.0 
83.2 
90.5 
88.4 
81.0 
70.0 
72.0 
76.0 
70.0 


1.00 

3.06 

2.46 

2.50 

:i.50 

2.00 

1.60 

2.60 

2.48 

3.0 

2.1 

1.9 

2.2 

1.2 

1.5 

1.70 

2.10 

2.64 

1.90 

1.90 


10.19 
8.10 
8.21 
6.70 
9.10 
4.80 
11.90 
12.47 
7.8 
9.4 
8.0 
8.9 
7.0 
4.0 
5.1 
8.9 
16.0 
13.2 
13.0 
14.3 


0.54 

1.70 

0.49 

0.45 

0.40 

0.40 

0.30 

0.40 

0.40 

0.24 

0.30 

0.7 

0.5 

0.3 

0.3 

0.38 

0.50 

0.40 

0.40 

0.50 


11.4 
4.0 
3 9 
3 1 
2.9 
2.9 
7.4 
5.1 
3.5 
3.2 
4.1 
5.6 
3.8 
3.7 
3.9 
5.8 
8.2 
5.2 
6.8 
8.1 


16 


Ked clover ensilage 


28 


Alsike clover 


20 


Winter vetch 

Lucern 


0.19 
25 


Green rape 

Sorgliuin 


0.15 
19 


Orchard grass 


24 


Fodder peas 


19 


Cow peas 


24 


Esparsette 

Seradella 


0.18 
18 


Carrot leaves 


18 


Fodder beet leaves 


10 


Rutabaga leaves 


12 


Fodder oats 


17 


Timothy grass 


28 


Hungarian grass .n bloom 

Fodder rye in head 


0.24 
21 


Upland grass, average 


0.23 



If we examine the table, we find that 100 pounds of green 
corn would give only one pound of digestible albuminoids. 
If this were fed to a cow that yielded 30 pounds of milk, it 
would be insufficient to furnish the caseine and albumen in 
the milk alone, without yielding anything to supply the 
waste of the cow's body. The G-erman experimenters think 
they have shown the necessity of supplying two and a half 
pounds of digestible albuminoids per day to a cow of 1,000 
pounds weight, in milk. This would require 250 pounds of 
corn ensilage as a daily ration — an impossible ration. But 
if we take from the table 65 pounds of clover ensilage and 
60 pounds of corn ensilage, it wiJl give a complete daily 
ration for a cow of 1,000 pounds weight, in milk — 2.58 
pounds albuminoids; 11.37 pounds carbo-hydrates; 1.4 



ENSILAGE AS A COMPLETE RATION. 225 

pound fat. This is a large excess of fat, which Avill more 
than make up the deficiency of carbo-hydrates. We know 
from experiment that this ration will produce a large flow 
of milk, having fed it in just this proportion early in Sep- 
tember, from green corn and second-crop clover, both in 
excellent condition ; but being fed fresh, it contained more 
water than that given in the table, as that had lost water 
in the silo. Yet it contained liberal nourishment to pro- 
duce a full flow of milk. We have fed this combination 
in several different years, and always with complete satis- 
faction. 

Let ns examine red clover as an ensilage crop. As will 
be seen by the table, red closer is the most nitrogenous of 
the leguminons grasses there given, except lucerne or alfalfa, 
and this latter has not been cultivated to any consider- 
able extent except in California. A full crop of green 
clover weighs more than most farmers suppose. The author 
has fed many acres of red clover for soiling, and carefully 
weighed the joroduct of an acre in different seasons. Ten 
tons have been found only a good crop in a favorable 
season, and sometimes 12 tons have been weighed from an 
acre at the first cutting. Twenty tons may be taken from 
an acre at three cuttings in the most favorable seasons. 
Lawes' and Gilbert's experiments with different fertilizers 
for clover, produced from fourteen to eighteen gross tons 
of green clover upon an acre at one cutting, the latter yield 
being equal to a little over 20 American tons. And as a ton 
of clover is worth about two tons of fodder-corn, it will be 
seen that the clover crop may be qi,iite as profitable for 
ensilage as corn. It can be cut and ensilaged at a less price 
per ton than corn can be grown and ensilaged. If, then, 
we estimate the specially raised clover crop, in two cuttings, 
to produce 15 tons per acre, this would give a ration of 65 
pounds per day for 461 days, and it would take half an acre 
of good corn to produce the 62 pounds of corn per day — 



226 FEEDING ANIMALS. 

this is equivalent to keeping a 1,000-ponnd cow on a full 
ration of clover and corn 308 clays from the product of one 
acre. This would be the full milking season of ten months, 
and ought to produce an average of 6,000 pounds of milk. 
In this case the acre produces everything the cow consumes, 
and this is certainly a cheap production of milk. 

The same proportional ration may be combined of alsike 
clover, orchard grass, Hungarian grass, or winter vetch 
and corn, when these shall all be put in the silo. Fodder 
rye and clover, 50 pounds of each, will furnish a complete 
ration. One hundred and twenty-five pounds of peas and 
oats ensilaged together, will give a complete ration. So, 
likewise, will 100 pounds of timothy and Hungarian grass, 
or 125 pounds of sorghum and orchard grass. The reader 
will see that an almost endless combination may be made 
from this table, giving the requisite ingredients for a com- 
plete ration. 

If, then, it is conceded, and the proofs are beyond dis- 
pute, that these green foods may be preserved in silo in a 
fit condition for the production of milk, meat and wool, 
the farmer may feed stock without the use of grain, and 
thus make his farm self-supporting. In this way the sys- 
tem of ensilage may enable the stock farmer to continue 
succulent food to his animals throughout the year. 

Ensilage Crops. 

The same crops are as appropriate for ensilage as for 
soiling. But as the crops raised for the silo should be suf- 
ficient for the purpose intended, and cannot be assisted by 
partial pasture, great care should be given to their cultiva- 
tion, and a sufficient amount of land devoted to them to 
produce the amount required. A rational calculation for 
this purpose should be made, based upon 45 lbs. as the 
weight of each cubic foot which the silo contains. This 
will render it easy to estimate the number of tons of green 



ElfSILAGE CROPS. 237 

crop required to fill the silo. But what shall be the esti- 
mate of the expected weight of corn per acre, of rye, 
clover, millet, etc.? It is well to strive for a large yield by 
the best management of the land and seed ; but it is neces- 
sary to make a liberal allowance of land for ensilage crops 
to meet unexpectedly-short yields. In a large proportion 
of silos yet built they have proved too large for the crop 
intended to fill them. This comes from overestimating 
the probable crop from ordinary cultivation. Tliey have 
expected to obtain the largest crop with the ordinary 
amount of manure and labor. It is quite commendable to 
strive for the largest crops by the best means, but a con- 
siderable allowance should be made for an adverse season, 
and another considerable allowance made for the liability 
to overestimate croj)S. The silo makes no loose estimate 
of a green crop put into it, but weighs it accurately 
according to the compression. Corn requires about 100 
lbs. pressure to the square foot to give a weight of 45 lbs. 
to the cubic foot of ensilage. The ordinary grasses will 
pack somewhat solider and give 48 lbs. to the cubic foot 
after compression under that weight. 

The best method of raising corn for ensilage is to plant 
36 to 42 inches apart and cultivate it as for a regular field- 
crop. Corn is a rank feeder, and the land should be well 
prepared, strongly manured, and that thoroughly worked 
into the soil. The land, if old, should be worked fine at 
least 8 inches deep. 

Two hundred and fifty pounds of green stalks per rod is 
a fair yield of corn, or 20 tons per acre ; but it is possible 
to double this yield, yet this figure is seldom reached, and 
any ordinary caculation, based ujDon this yield for filling a 
silo, will come to grievous disappointment. When a party 
has fairly reached this figure he will have a basis for it. 

Winter Rye, standing thick and 5 to 6 feet high, will 
often reach 12 to 16 tons green to the acre, but it is not 



228 FEEDING AKIMALS. 

safe to estimate over 10 tons for a carefully- raised crop in 
filling silo. A good crop of clover, as we have before 
stated, should reach 10 to 12 tons green, and in favorable 
seasons, the two subsequent cuttings should reach 8 to 10 
tons more. But it must be remembered that this means a 
thick stand of full-height clover. 

Millet, on land suited to it, should reach 10 or more 
tons per acre, at blossoming. 

Pease and Oats, in blossom, reach about the same fig- 
ure as millet. But pease may properly be left, in cutting 
for ensilage, till the berry, in the earliest pods, is in the 
dough state. Some part of the head of the oats will also 
have formed the seed, at this point. But the crop must not 
be left any longer, for it will deteriorate for ensilage rap- 
idly beyond this point, and if there is any probability of 
being delayed the crop had better be cut when the pea is 
in blossom. 

Timothy and Late Clover, when in perfection, will 
make a most valuable ensilage crop — both on account of 
the large amount of nutriment on an acre, and because it 
comes at a favorable time for laying in a supply of green 
food for feeding on short pasture. On land adapted to 
timothy it often stands five feet high and so thick as to 
yield 24,000 to 28,000 pounds on an acre as a single crop. 
The Woburn experiments report a crop of timothy, cut in 
blossom, that yielded 40,000 pounds on an acre. This is 
the largest crop ever reported. Professor Way found 
timothy the most nutritive of all the grasses he subjected 
to analysis. The danger with timothy is in cutting it too 
early or too late. The bulb on the lower joint requires to 
mature before cutting or the root is likely to die. The 
most appropriate time for cutting timothy is when the first 
dry spot appears above the lower joint. This indicates the 
maturity of the bulb, and it occurs while in blossom — 



ElfSILAGE CKOPS. 229 

that on the lower part of the spike slightly turned brown, 
but the upper part still purple. It should now be cut 
immediately, as it deteriorates in quality yery rapidly. 
The combined crop of timothy and large and late clover 
may be cultivated to produce from 12 to 14 tons upon an 
acre, and each ton worth about two tons of fodder-corn. 
So that this crop should be considered quite as profitable 
as the corn crop for ensilage, and when the labor is taken 
into account, much more profitable, as on favorable soil it 
may give 5 to 10 consecutive crops without any labor 
except an occasional top-dressing. This crop, allowing 60 
lbs. per head per day, would feed a cow through the year. 
The ensilagist must, however, learn to raise the cro]3 before 
he estimates more than 60 per cent, of these figures. 

SoEGHUM Cane is likely to prove a valuable ensilaging 
crop. Some of the larger varieties yield very large crops, 
will produce as much as the largest corn ; on suitable land 
25 tons would be a moderate yield. Should cane be raised 
largely for sugar, the tops and leaves will make excellent 
ensilage, amounting from 4 to 8 tons per acre, according to 
the size of the variety. Containing so much sugar will 
increase its tendency to fermentation, and the silo will 
require a well-weighted cover. This crop will have one 
advantage which may be of considerable service — it may 
be cut twice in a season. If the season is favorable it may 
be cut when four or five feet high, and it will spring up 
again with great rapidity and mature a second crop. We 
have, for two years, pursued this plan for summer soiling 
to advantage. 

Storing Several Ensilage Crops Together. 

If second crop clover is ensilaged with corn, the clover 
fills the spaces between the coarser pieces of corn, makes a 
solider mass than corn alone, and more effectually excludes 
the air, so that it is an advantage in the preservation of the 



230 FEEDING ANIMALS. 

ensilage; and besides, it will furnish the more nitrogenous 
addition to the ration which corn requires. If corn, 
millet and clover are ready at the same time, they may be 
all ensilaged together to the great advantage of the result- 
ing preserved fodder. This combination would give a 
complete ration for milk without the addition of grain. 

When winter rye is ensilaged in June, it may most prof- 
itably be mingled with the first cutting of clover. This 
will furnish an admirable ration foa." milk through August 
and September, when pasture is short. These different 
crops may all be mixed in the cutter together without 
requiring any extra labor, and all be delivered by the car- 
rier in the silo together. This will give a variety in the 
ration, and enable the thrifty dairyman to feed his stock 
without purchased food. 

Summer soiling is likely, in the future, to be so closely 
connected with the system of ensilage that the soiling 
ration will come from the silo in summer as well as winter. 
It will be found so much less labor to cut and store the 
green food all at one time, instead of cutting one day's 
feed at a time; and, besides, if cut and stored in silo, it can 
be done when the trop is at its very best, instead of begin- 
ning before it is quite ready and continuing to cut it some 
time beyond its best condition. It will probably lessen the 
labor of soiling 40 per cent. This will also increase the 
yield of the crop, and in case of clover or other crop hav- 
ing more than one cutting, give more time for the growth 
of the second crop-.' 

But the ensilage system must be expanded beyond the 
very narrow one of green-corn preservation, and include 
every green-fodder crop — this makes every complete farm 
independent of the productions of every other farm in 
carrying on its stock operations. It will often be profitable, 
when short of ensilage crops, to make up the deficiency by 
cutting and ensilaging the common meadow grasses when 
in blossom. TJiese will make the most nutritious ensilage. 



STORIN"G THE CROP IK SILO. 331 

The system of milk production, as heretofore carried on, 
cannot be remunerative without grain-feeding during some 
portion of the year, whilst under the general system of 
ensilage, grain-feeding will not be necessary for the profit- 
able production of meat, milk or wool. This being true, 
it does not follow that grain may not be fed at a profit, 
but this new system may render every farm independent of 
grain if it chooses to rely upon its own resources. 

CUTTIISTG CftOP AN"D FILLING SiLO. 

The best machine for cutting corn and all ensilage crops, 
except, perhaps, clover and the ordinary grasses, is a 
strong, self-rake reaper, laying it oflF in compact gavels, 
which may be bound into bundles or loaded without bind- 
ing. Corn may be lifted from the gavel upon the wagon 
without gathering up stones or sticks to injure the cutter. 
The reaper will cut an acre of heavy corn as quick as 20 
men with ordinary hand corn-cutters. If the corn must 
be cut by hand, then a stout corn-cradle in the hands of a 
skillful man will do the best execution. Three teams, with 
two men to help load in field, will haul corn, from a short 
distance, as fast as it can be run through the cutter. And 
there has been no way yet devised better than to have the 
corn lifted from the wagon by hand upon a table behind 
the cutter, and have it passed through the cutter as fast as 
it is delivered upon the table. With an extra wagon the 
teams will not be delayed at the cutter. 

The cutter must be placed so that the cut corn or grass 
will fall directly into the silo, or be run from the cutter 
into the silo by a carrier. Carriers are very easily arranged 
by belts and canvas so as to elevate it 8 to 12 feet as fast 
as it can be cut. 

In hauling winter rye, millet, peas, oats, etc., these may 
be lifted upon the wagon with a strong gavel-fork, without 



"332 FEEDIIfG ANIMALS. 

danger of gathering stone, sticks, etc., and these crops can 
be handled very rapidly — each team should bring to the 
silo 20 tons per day with sufficient help in loading. 

It will often be advisable, when a large crop of rye is 
cut in June and no clover to cut with it, that early miscel- 
laneous meadow grasses should be cut so as to mix 25 per 
cent, of these with the rye in the silo to improve the 
ensilage. 

It is much the cheapest and best to mix the different 
qualities in the same silo than to mix the ensilage from 
different silos. 

Great care should be taken to spread the ensilage in the 
silo even and tread as even as may be whilst filling, and the 
filling should go on continuously every day till finished, 
and the weighted cover should be put on at once. A foot 
of clean straw put over the top of the ensilage will assist 
in preserving it. The straw will spoil and leave the ensi- 
lage under it sweet. 



CATTLE-EEEDING. 233 



CHAPTEE VIII. 

CATTLE-FEEDING. 

The business of cattle-raising in the United States has 
grown to very great proportions witliin the last fifteen 
years — so great as to astonish the European cattle-growers. 
The typical American is prone to reduce every business to 
its simplest elements ; and he naturally prefers a system of 
cattle-feeding in which, instead of the expenditure of 
labor in raising cattle food, building warm barns and feed- 
ing the cattle in them with all the modern appliances of 
science and machinery, the cattle shall feed themselves all 
the year on the natural grasses of our Western plains. 
Cattle are thus produced by millions over large districts of 
our domain ; and, from the most favored belts, steers have 
come to market with a well-matured weight of 1,400 to 
1,800 pounds. Skillful ranch operators have made and are 
making fortunes under this simple patriarchial system of 
beef production. But this system is merely temporary, a 
few years, more or less, and the native grasses are eaten 
out, and beef-growing returns to the civilized system, 
involving labor directed by skill. Besides, the home and 
foreign markets require all the good beef we can produce 
under the best system. 

We shall therefore confine our attention to the regular 
system where so much depends upon skill in its manipula- 
tion. We have previously shown that there is no mystery 
in the growth of animals — that every pound weight put on 
represents so much food. We wish to impress upon the 



234 FEEDING AlflMALS. 

mind of every stock-feeder this primary law of equiva- 
lence — that every pound of growth must be the result of 
food expended. There is no game of chance in cattle- 
feeding, by which you may sometimes get something for 
nothing — every favorable result must be balanced by an 
expenditure of food and care. It is here all even-handed 
justice — so much for so much — but never so much for 
nothing. 

Farmers, during the last decade, have given much 
greater attention to the economical question of stock- 
raising, not only as a source of present profit, but as a 
means of perpetual fertility to the soil. 

We have long regarded it as the height of unwisdom to 
export the heavy raw material (grain) instead of the con- 
centrated product, meat ; and have been pleased to note a 
decided change in the general opinion and practice among 
farmers in this matter. The grain and the animals should 
be raised upon the same farm, but only the animals sold. 
There is more profit in the sale of the concentrated product 
than the raw material. 

We shall hope to show how grain-raising and stock- 
growing may be profitably blended together. 

A thorough discussion of cattle-feeding requires that we 
take up first — 

How TO Feed the Young Calf. 

As we have seen, fresh mi|k is the best food for the 
young calf, and th6 natural method of taking it is for the 
calf to draw it from the udder of its dam. But there are 
many considerations that come in to prevent this natural 
method among the 500,000 dairymen of the United States. 
This natural method is only practicable among the breed- 
ers of pure-blooded and high-priced stock, grown primarily 
for beef; and if such breeder of high blood is located in 
a dairying district, where milk is valuable, it is quite 



CATTLE rEEDi]srt]r. 235 

unnecessary that he should feed new milk longer than one 
or two months. After that period, the calf may be fed 
upon the skim-milk, and linseed or flax-seed gruel, with an 
excellent chance of growing a pi-ize animal. In thirty to 
sixty days the calf will have made an excellent start and be 
ready for the modified diet. And if the calf is to be taught 
to drink, it is better to do this when six to ten days old. It 
will learn easier at that age than later, and the cow will 
give more milk through the season than if the calf is per- 
mitted to suck longer. The milk being fed warm from the 
mother, the calf will make a growth not perceptibly differ- 
ent from one that sucks. This blooded calf should have 
the free run of a dry yard, with a little hay or grass to eat, 
that it may early develop its first stomach and chew its 
end. A small field of grass in summer is still better. 
When the time comes for feeding skim-milk, the ration 
may be made about as nutritious as the new milk by add- 
ing to it flax-seed gruel, made by boiling a pint of flax- 
seed and a pint of oil-meal in ten to twelve quarts of water, 
or flax-seed alone in six times its bulk of water. Mix this 
one to two parts with skim-milk and feed blood-warm. 
Let the calf have its fill twice per day, at regular times, 
until six months old. During this time teach it to eat a 
few oats, and in case of a tendency to scour, give, for a 
meal or two, in the milk, a quart of coarse wheat flour, 
sometimes called by farmers canel. It will be perceived 
that the oil of the flax-seed will make good the loss of the 
cream in the milk — in fact it is a ration as rich as milk 
itself; and we have seen calves raised upon it quite the 
equal of calves running with the dam. We have also used 
flax-seed and pea-meal to make the gruel to mix with the 
skim-milk, and it has proved an excellent combination. 

Dairying under the improved system introduced in the 
factory, has become profitable ; and the discovery has been 
made, that butter and cheese of excellent quality may be 



236 FEEDING ANIMALS. 

made beyond the so-called dairy belt ; that good grass will 
make good milk, and, when well manufactured, good butter 
and cheese, West as well as East. Dairy products have be- 
come too valuable to permit calves intended for the dairy 
or for beef to be raised upon whole milk ; they must be 
grown upon the refuse of the dairy — either skim-milk or 
whey — with other and cheaper food to be added. 

Skim-milk Eation for Calf. 

The dairyman may feed whole milk a single week, and 
then substitute skim-milk, with a little flax-seed jelly 
mixed in as above described ; or, if flax-seed is difficult to 
procure, add two tablespoonfuls of oil-meal per day, dis- 
solved in hot water. This oil-meal may be doubled in a 
week, gradually increasing to one pound -pev day ; but this 
will be sufficient up to sixty days old. When the calf is 
sixty days old, add one pound of oats or oatmeal or wheat 
middlings. Continue this for sixty days. Twenty pounds 
of skim-milk per day will be sufficient for the first ninety 
days, but no injury will occur from a larger ration as the 
calf grows older. For the next ninety days, if milk is 
short, feed only ten pounds of skim-milk, and increase the 
oats or middlings to. two pounds per day. We have ad- 
vised the linseed oil-meal because it is excellent for the 
health of the calf, and, as we saw by the analysis, has ten 
per cent, of oil and a large percentage of muscle-forming 
food, and phosphate of lime to build the bones and extend 
the frame. It has most excellent qualities as a food for 
raising calves, and can always be had for this purpose at 
from one and a half to two cents per pound — generally at 
the former figure in the West, and the latter in the 
East. New process linseed-meal is now gradually taking 
the place of the old style oil-meal, the difference being that 
the oil is reduced to two and a half per cent.; but oil- 
meal may be dispensed with, and oat-meal or middlings 



SKIMMED MILK FOE CALF. 237 

used in its stead, with skim-milk. In fact, if yon have 
plenty of skim-milk, an excellent calf may be raised on 
this alone. But it often occurs that more calves are to be 
raised than the skim-milk will feed. Skim-milk is much 
more valuable as food than is generally supposed. It con- 
tains all the qualities of the milk, except the cream. The 
casein, the most valuable food constituent of the milk, and 
the milk sugar or whey, are still in it. If you feed only 
skim-milk to a healthy calf, it will require, on an average, 
from fifteen to twenty pounds of milk to make one pound 
of live weight during the first ninety days, if the calf is 
given all it wants ; and a good eater will gain two and a half 
pounds per day. We have often had calves seventy days 
old fed with one-half pound of fiax-seed and one and a half 
pounds of oat-meal each, with twenty pounds of skim-milk 
per day, that have gained in weight thirty to thirty-seven 
pounds in ten days — an average of over three and one- 
fourth pounds each, per day. The flax-seed and oat-meal 
are boiled, and then mixed with the milk. The average 
weight of these calves, when dropped, was about sixty 
pounds ; their average weight at seventy days was two 
hundred and thirty pounds — they had consequently gained 
2.42 pounds per day. They were fed new milk for one 
week, then half new and half skim-milk for another week, 
then upon skim-milk and four ounces of boiled flax-seed 
each, per day; at thirty-four days old flax-seed increased to 
one-half pound and one-half pound oat-meal added; the 
latter was increased to one pound in a few weeks, and 
afterwards another half pound added. These calves were 
small, but excellent eaters, and made an extra gain. But 
we have generally succeeded with the ration first given in 
making an average growth of two pounds per day, for the 
first ninety days. We expect thrifty calves to reach three 
hundred pounds at three months. We have calves at this 
writing forty to fifty days old, that are gaining two pounds 



238 FEEDING ANTMALS. 

per day upon a ration compounded in the same proportion. 
For the second three months the calves may have good 
pasture, with what milk can be spared — say ten pounds — 
with one quart of oats and one pound of wheat middlings. 
This will keep them growing steadily and vigorously, which 
is the only way to make them profitable. Good feeders, on 
the ration we have given, will reach an average of five hun- 
dred pounds at six months; and we do not think it worth 
the cost to attempt raising a mincing eater. A good appe- 
tite and good digestion are essential in growing a profitable 
calf. 

Flax-seed as a small part of the ration for the calf cannot 
be too highly recommended. It is a natural antidote to 
scouring, or a feverish condition of the stomach and 
intestines. Its large proportion of oil renders it so appro- 
priate to mingle with other food deficient in oil, that it 
will well repay any feeder to keep a few bushels on hand. 
It is also excellent to mix in the food of older animals, the 
details of which will be given in subsequent pages. 

There are many examples we might mention as an 
encouragement to ]3ursue this system of full feeding upon 
refuse milk and other food. 

Hon. George Geddes mentions a calf, at Syracuse, X. Y., 
only 240 days old, that dressed 655 pounds, and must have 
had a live weight of 875 pounds, though not weighed alive. 

Mr. C. S. Marvin, of Oxford Depot, Orange Co., N. Y., 
had a calf dropped in October, 1864, afterwards called 
Uncle Abe, that weighed at birth 134 pounds ; at 90 days, 
385 pounds ; at 6 months old, 670 pounds; at 1 year, 1,036 
pounds. But this calf had the milk of his dam, and, after 
he was some two weeks old, a quart of meal, increased 
gradually up to two quarts. This steer continued to grow 
rapidly, and, at 18 months, weighed 1,354 pounds, and, at 
2 years, 1,616 pounds; at 30 months, 1,830 pounds; at 3 
years, 2,070 pounds; and, at 4 years and 5 months, 2,530 



SKIMMED MILK KATION. 239 

pounds. This is a case where neAv milk did its best during 
the first year, and we give it to illustrate the best feeding 
with whole milk. But, to show that new milk may, with- 
out injury, be omitted, we give a stronger case with skim- 
milk and oil-meal : Mr. William Wallace, of Grant Park, 
Kankakee Co., 111., had a pair of twin grade Short-horn 
bull calves, droj)ped April 2, 1870, and named Ellsworth 
Twins. Their only food the first summer was sour skim- 
milk, oil-meal and grass. They weighed together, at 6 
months, 1,340 pounds ; at 1 year old, 1,960 pounds ; at 2 
years, 3,305 pounds; at 3 years old, 4,500 pounds. They 
were weighed at various intermediate times, and made a 
regular and steady growth. These steers were fed upon 
grass, hay, oats and corn, in the open air. Their increase 
w.qs somewhat less the second 6 months than it should have 
been, which we attribute to the want of proper shelter. It 
will be seen that they gained only half as much the second 
as the first six warm months. But they made a greater 
average weight at 2 years than Uncle Abe, with all the new 
milk he could take for the first ten months. It is to be 
regretted that their food of all kinds was not weighed, so 
as to teach us a most important lesson as to cost of pro- 
ducing such weight under the system of full feeding; but 
we know that it cost less than to have made the same 
growth in a longer time. 

Let us give another illustration of large growths made 
upon refuse milk, reported, on good authority, in the 
Country Gentleman. A grade Short-horn calf, dropped 
March 1, 1876, was purchased, at four weeks old, by C. H. 
Farnum, of Concord, N. H., and weighed 160 pounds. He 
intended it as a mate to one of his own, weighing 205 
pounds, proposing to raise them for working oxen. Their 
feed was exclusively skim-milk — all they would take. But 
it was soon apparent that the lightest calf was outgrowing 
the other, and he abandoned the idea of using them for 



240 FEEDING ANIMALS. 

oxen. He slaughtered the one originally the heaviest, at 
eight and one-half months old, and it dressed 522 pounds. 
Its live weight is not known, but must have been at least 
800 pounds — its girth was five feet two inches. His mate 
was mnch better to appearance, and it was determined to 
keep it, on experiment, till a year old. This calf was fed, 
during the last three months, on skim-milk, shorts and 
hay. At the end of the year its girth was six feet five 
inches, and the calf so fat as to cover his hips from sight. 
He was purchased by a butcher, at ten cents per pound 
dressed weight. His live weight was 1,200 pounds, and his 
dressed weight 902 pounds, meat 748 pounds, hide and 
tallow 154 pounds. Price paid $90.20. 

This last calf weighed, at twenty-eight days old, 160 
pounds. It gained in 337 days, or the balance of its first 
year, 1,040 pounds, an average of 3.08 pounds per day, 
which is, so far as we know, the largest gain on record, for 
so long a i^eriod, whatever the food. 

Here are two cases of two calves, each making an 
unusual weight, esj^ecially the last one, without any new 
milk. It is doubtful if any case can be found of greater 
weight than 1,200 pounds, at one year, fed upon new milk 
in any quantity. In fact the cases are so numerous of great 
growth upon skim-milk, that it cannot longer be claimed 
that whole milk is necessary to raise even the best calves. 
It is thus evident that the dairyman may raise his calves 
for beef or for ihe dairy without interfering with his 
profits in butter. And the expert butter-maker can realize ■ 
more money from the cream than the whole milk will bring 
in cheese, and, besides, raise fine calves upon the skim-milk. 
We have raised many fine calves upon half the skim-milk 
of the dam, supplemented with other food ; but it is quite 
an easy matter for a skillful feeder to raise one calf to each 
cow devoted to butter making, with the aid of a small 
amount of grain. 



cost of the tearlikg. 241 

Cost of Calf at One Yeab. 

As the author's object is to induce farmers to raise better 
animals, aud thus, not only add to their profits, but equally 
to their pleasure and satisfaction, we will estimate the cost 
of growing a good calf for the first twelve months. In the 
Western States the 240 pounds of oats required for the first 
six months would cost about one cent per pound, and, if 
bran were used, about half that; the 182 pounds of oil- 
meal, about one and one-half cents, or $2.73 — whole cost 
of grain, 15.13. The 2,700 pounds of skim-milk may be 
called worth one-fourth cent per pound, or $6. 75 ; and if 
we call the hay or grass for the second three months worth 
one dollar, we have $12.88 as the entire cost, allowing a 
fair price for everything eaten by the calf; and, with the 
ration in the case we have described, the calf should have 
a live weight of 500 to 600 pounds at six months. This 
calf would be worth twenty-five dollars — certainly a fair 
margin of profit. But let us continue the estimate to the 
end of the year. The second six months the calf will 
require ten pounds of hay per day — 1,820 pounds, costing, 
at forty cents per 100 pounds, $7.28 ; three pounds of oats 
and corn, ground together, and two pounds of bran, per 
day, 910 pounds, at three-fourths of a cent (the price in 
ordinary times), $6.83 — amounting, for second six months, 
to $14.11, and for the year to $26.99. This calf, at a year, 
will weigh 800 to 1,000 pounds, and be worth forty to sixty 
dollars, depending on price of beef. We have estimated an 
average top price of cost for the food of such a calf in the 
West, and from ten to twenty per cent, must be added to 
represent the cost in the East. Deduct one-third of this 
food, and you have the cost of a common animal — not worth 
the cost of its keep. 

Here, as everywhere in feeding animals, is illustrated the 
fact, that from the extra food comes all the profit. 
11 



242 FEEDING AISriMALS. 

There are many other foods that may be used to feed the 
calf the second six months, to be determined by the price 
of the particular food in the different localities. Linseed- 
meal (extracted by the new process), is one of the best foods 
to grow the young animal. This can usually be bought 
for twenty to twenty-five dollars per ton, and, when corn 
is cheaj), the best grain ration would be two pounds linseed- 
meal and three pounds of corn-meal per day added to the 
hay ration, or hay and straw ration. The linseed-meal has 
a nutritive ratio of 1: 1.4, and corn-meal 1: 8.5, and the 
mixture would have a nutritive ratio of 1: 5.6, or a well 
balanced ration. The linseed-meal is rich in the constitu- 
ents of bone and muscle, and the corn in the elements 
that generate heat and lay on fat. 

Eye and barley-meal, millet and buckwheat-meal, pea 
and oat-meal, are all excellent food for calves the first 
winter. 

Whey Ration" for the Calf. 

Although an easy matter to raise a fine calf upon milk 
deprived only of its cream — this single element being easily 
supplied — the successful use of milk deprived of both 
cream and casein, or cheese, leaving only whey or milk 
sugar, requires much more skill and a knowledge of the 
composition of different foods. Sugar is an important 
element of food, but only one — and no animal can subsist 
upon sugar alone. Whey, however, is not pure milk sugar, 
but contains a little soluble albumen, a trace of casein 
or cheese, a little soluble phosphate of lime — but still 
mostly mere sugar of milk. ,This milk sugar in whey is 
in a very soluble and digestible condition, and has a feed- 
ing value well worth saving. We have usually considered 
whey, theoretically, as containing only the sugar of milk ; 
but Prof. Voelcker "gives 18 analyses of whey, taken from 
as many different cheese makers' vats, and if these samples 
are no better than the general average of the whey from 



"WHET EATION FOR CALF. 



243 



our cheese factories, then whey has a greater feeding vahir 
than its milk sugar would indicate. The following is thr 
average of his 18 analyses : 



Water 

Butter (piire fat) . , 

♦Albuminous compounds 
Milk sugar and lactic acid 
Mineral matter (ash) 

Total 

♦ Containing nitrogen 



93.02 
.33 



4.98 
.70 



Calculated 
dry. 



100.00 
.146 



4.80 
14.00 

ro.i8 

11.02 



100.00 
3.75 



This shows a greater waste than has been supposed of 
the nitrogenous matter in the whey. The ash also is 
remarkably large' — nearly as much as in whole milk — 
but common salt, probably, forms half of this ash, and this 
comes from the salt used in cheese making. But the 
albuminous matter forms nearly one per cent., and will be 
a great assistance in feeding beyond that of nearly pure 
milk sugar. Yet, to make whey a suitable food to grow 
the young animal vigorously, we must supplement the oil 
taken away in the cream — the nitrogenous food, the phos- 
phate of lime, magnesia, sulphur, soda, etc., taken away in 
the casein, or cheese, and when we have combined these in 
proper proportion with the whey, we have restored it nearly 
to its normal condition of milk, audit then forms an appro- 
priate food to grow calves. This requires a little thought 
ofl the part of the feeder ; but every farmer ought to be 
willing to give thought and care to his business. Probably 
the best single food to be added to whey is oil-meal. By 
recurring to the table of analyses given on page 140, it 
will be seen that oil-meal lias 38 per cent, of muscle-form- 
ing food — just what whey is deficient in — and also 10 per 
cent, of oil (another deficiency in whey); and it has nearly 
8 per cent, of ash ; and this ash is made up of phosphate 



244 FEEDIKG ANIMALS. 

of lime, magnesia, potash, soda, etc. — ^just what is needed 
to build the bones and frame of the calf. Now, if one- 
quarter of a pound of oil-meal or cake (which is less likely 
to be adulterated), dissolved in hot whey, is added to each 
gallon of Avliey, it will make it good food for a calf ten 
days to two weeks old. When the calf is three to four 
weeks old, add a quarter pound, or an equal amount of 
wheat bran, ground oats or barley, to each gallon of whey. 
This oil-meal, bran or oats, will make the whey about 
equal to milk. The oil-meal and oat-meal should be 
scalded in whey or water. This extra food given with the 
whey is not very expensive, costing only from $4 to 15.50, 
according to location, to feed a calf for six months, if we 
suppose the calf to take four gallons per day; and we have 
known many calves thus fed that weighed 500 lbs. at six 
months old; but an average of 400 to 450 lbs. can be de- 
pended on with good care and this ration ; and such calves 
are worth about 120 per head at that age. If raised upon 
whey alone, they are not worth enough to pay the labor 
expended. The proper use of whey in feeding young- 
animals is a matter of much importance. It is estimated 
that there are made in the United States 300,000,000 lbs. 
of cheese. This would represent in the whey, according 
to Voelcker's analyses, 188,000,000 lbs. of dry food, reckon- 
ing one gallon of whey to each pound of cheese. And if 
we suppose each calf to take during the season 600 gallons 
of whey, the 300,000,000 gallons would feed 500,000 calves. 
And if these calves were fed according to our formula, they 
would average a weight of 400 lbs.; and if we estimate 
them as worth only $14 per head, and the extra food as 
costing $5 per head, it would leave a credit to the whey of 
$9 per head, or a sum total made from whey of $4,500,000. 
We regard this as less than the actual result would be if the 
whey were fed as indicated ; and here seems to be an im- 
portant field for improvement. It is not necessary to 



WHEY KATION FOR CALF. 245 

follow the exact plau here proposed in order to utilize the 
whej. If oil-meal or oil-cake cannot easily be obtained, 
wheat bran, oat-meal, barley-meal, or oats and peas ground 
together, may be substituted ; a small portion of corn-meal 
may be mixed ; but it is not proper to be fed alone with 
whey, as corn has too large a proportion of starch and too 
small a jDroportion of muscle-forming elements to make up 
for the deficiencies in the whey. Another important point 
is, that the whey should not be allowed to get very sour 
before feeding, but should be fed as nearly sweet as possible. 

The new process linseed-meal also makes a good addition 
to whey for feeding calves. This has only one-fonrth as 
much oil as the old style, but the per cent, of albuminous 
matter is larger. A better ration to feed the young calf 
than the one first above given, would be one-fourth pound 
of linseed-meal and one-fourth pound of flax-seed, boiled 
together and added to two gallons of whey. This would re- 
place more of the oil and cost but slightly more. Whey is not 
so badly balanced as a food for young animals of some age 
as is generally supposed, but it contains too much water in 
proportion to its dry matter — 93 per cent, water to 7 per 
cent, dry substance. And, for this reason, there is a large 
benefit in mixing other food with it to reduce the propor- 
tion of water. After the calves reach an age of 60 to 90 
days, wheat middlings may be mixed with the whey alone, 
at the rate of one-half pound to the gallon. The food then 
will be 87 per cent, water to 13 per cent, dry substance, 
comparing favorably with milk, beets, mangel, and some of 
the more watery green foods, such as green rape, beans in 
blossom, cabbage, carrot-tops, etc. To this, requiring the 
calf to take so much water for so little food, is, no doubt, 
due much of the injurious effects of feeding whey alone, 
and, as we have seen, it is easy to obviate this by mixing 
dry food with it. 

Large experiments have been conducted by Mr. I. H. 



246 FEEDING ANIMALS. 

Wanzer, of Elgin Creamery, Illinois, in feeding this whey 
ration to a large number of calves. He used oil-meal, oats 
and bran with Avhey after the calf was four weeks old. He 
raised VZO calves in 1876 on this diet, and sold them at an 
average of about 121 per head, at seven months old. The 
farmer cannot properly object that it requires grain under 
this mode of feeding, because he raises his grain with a 
view to realizing so much money from it, and the money 
will come more surely by feeding it to calves than selling 
in market. It is not good farming to sell grain, when 
more money can be made from feeding it to animals and 
selling the animals. It is time American farmers had 
changed their system of raising so largely of grain to sell 
in market, and adopted the better English system of rais- 
ing all the coarse grain required in the rotation, and buy- 
ing all they can economically use in addition, to feed out 
on the farm, that the land may be kept good if not 
improved. 

Hay Tea Ration for Calves. 

This old expedient to rear calves without milk had an 
excellent basis, as do most common j)ractices. The solu- 
ble nutritive constituents of the hay are extracted by boil- 
ing, and this extract contains all the food elements required 
to grow the animal, besides being as digestible as milk. If 
the hay is cut early, when it has most soluble matter, and 
is of good quality, the tea will grow good calves ; but this 
extract frequently has too small a proportion of albumin- 
ous and fatty matter. Y"et if the hay tea is boiled down so 
as not to contain too much water for the dry substance, 
calves will usually thrive upon it. We tried an experiment 
by feeding 2 gallons of hay tea, in which M lb. of flax-seed 
and 1^ lb. of wheat middlings had been boiled, to each of 5 
calves 30 days old. This experiment was continued GO days, 
with a gradual increase, during the last 30 days, of the 
middlings to 1 lb. per day. These calves did remarkably 



HAT TEA RATION" FOR CALVES. 247 

well, gaining an average of a little over 2 pounds per head 
per day. 

Having mentioned this experiment to a farmer, who sold 
his milk for city consumption, yet desired to raise a half 
dozen calves, he tried the same formula and reported a 
gain per day for 60 days of 23€ lbs. per head. In our ex- 
periment we boiled hay cut % of an inch long, and 3 lbs. 
for each calf, h-alf an hour, and then the short hay was 
raised upon a wire-cloth sieve over the kettle and drained, 
whilst the flax-seed and middlings were put into the kettle 
and boiled to a jelly. The plan might be carried out on a 
large scale at little cost per calf. 

What Age for Beef.? 

This is a vital question at the entrance of the discussion 
of the cattle-growing business. The attention of the 
American farmer has been strongly called to the profitable 
age for beef by the great increase in our exports of live 
cattle during the last few years. The appreciation of 
English consumers of our best cattle offers every induce- 
ment for perseverance in improving our methods and cheap- 
ening our results to the greatest extent. The greater the 
value we can concentrate into an animal of 1,600 lbs., within 
the shortest time, or into a ton of dead meat, the greater 
will be our profit. The consumption of meat by the people 
of Great Britain and of Europe is much less per capita 
than in the United States, and a large increase is reasonably 
to be expected when the best quality of meat shall be 
offered them. The uneasiness of English farmers, excited 
when our exports of dead meats first commenced, has, hap- 
pily, been quieted by a reasonable consideration of the fact 
that their home demand for meat is much greater than 
they can supply. There is room for their own and all we 
can send. We have only to study how to produce the best 
quality at the least cost ; and we may in this learn a valua- 



248 FEEDING ANIMALS. 

ble lesson from the practice of the best English breeders 
and feeders. Their lands are so expensive, and cattle food 
so dear, that they have long been obliged to look at the 
question of cost in feeding very closely, and have been able 
to produce results that we may most profitably imitate. 

In a previous chapter we have strenuously insisted upon 
the speediest growth consistent with health, showing that 
early maturity offered the only safe system of profitable 
beef production ; and as these pages are written to teach 
more by example than precept, we shall often try to illus- 
trate the principles taught, not only by our own practice, 
but by that of the best feeders in this and other countries. 
In those countries where the first study is to furnish food 
for the greatest number of animals, that abundant manure 
may be returned to the soil, we may expect to find little 
matters studied that quite escape the attention of feeders 
in a country like ours, where space and food are so abun- 
dant. But we are also now strongly admonished that the 
generous production of a new soil cannot last forever, with- 
out also studying, as all other countries do, how to com- 
pensate the soil for the crops taken from it. 

The tendency of the best English feeders has been, for 
many years, towards the early maturity of cattle for mar- 
ket. They are fast exploding the old idea that four-year- 
old beef must necessarily be better than younger beef. 
They first compromised on three years old, fearing that 
cutting off one year would reduce the quality; but that 
proving entirely satisfactory to butchers and customers, 
they continued to shorten the time down to 30 months, 
with very little falling off in weight, and no deterioration 
in quality. It was at once discovered that shortening the 
market age added a large percentage to the profit, and the 
best feeders have at length succeeded in maturing the steer 
at 24 months, reaching about the same price they had ob- 
tained at 36 months; and now Mr. Henry Evershed writes 



WHAT AGE FOR BEEF. 



349 



an article for the Royal Agnmdtural Journal, giving the 
experience of various eminent farmers in raising 

''Baby Beef." 

This beef is from steers and heifers brought to market 
at from eleven to twenty mouths old. The points made in 
this article of Mr. Evershed's are so important, and have 
such a material bearing upon the true course to be followed 
in beef raising in some parts of the United States, that we 
shall make suflBcient extracts to show the mode of doing it 
and the results. Mr. Stanford, of Charlton Court, is stated 
as having lately sold the followiug high-grade Short-horns 
at the following ages and prices : 



Price 
(Gold). 



Return 
per month 
from birth. 



One eleven-montlis-old steer 

One tliirteen-months-old steer 

Three foiirteen-months-old heifers, average 

Three filteen-montlis-old heifers, average 

One sixteen-months-ohl f teer 

Five sixteen-nionths-oM steers, average 

One eighteen-inonths-old steer 

One eighteen and one-lialf-months-ohl steer 

Two eighteen and one-half-months-old steers, average 



^ 74.00 
101.64 
9-2.40 
101.04 
127 00 
102.30 
115.50 
129.36 . 
122.10 



$6.73 
7.82 
6.60 
6.77 
7.94 
6.39 
6.42 
7.00 
6.60 



It does not appear what the individual weights of these 
"baby-beef" animals were, but the price, net weight, is 
given at an equivalent of sixteen to eighteen cents per 
jDOund, probably according to our New York custom, 
counting only the four quarters. 

Mr. Evershed remarks: 

" The above figures show that tolerably-bred Short-horns 
will return seven shillings a Aveek from birth on this system, 
at from thirteen to eighteen months old. Those Short-horns 
which afibrd the least return were bought in the market, 
and those which gave the highest were by Mr. Stanford's 
pedigree bull, out of his well-bred, but not pedigree cows. 



250 FEEDING AKIMALS. 

The best feeders of common country-bred cattle in Sussex 
and Surrey inform me, that they consider a fair average 
weight for animals, well fed from birth, 100 Smithfield 
stone at one hundred weeks, giving a return of one stone 
(eight pounds dressed weight) per week, or six shillings 
($1.32) per week." 

He mentions one killed by Mr. Page, that dressed 132 
stone at one hundred weeks. This would be equivalent to 
1,760 pounds live weight. Some of the sixteen-months 
steers dressed, in the quarters, 600 pounds, having 120 
pounds of rough fat, and- a very small proportion of offal. 
This is not equal in weight to several given, pages 238-40. 
He represents that the best feeders are able to reach an 
average of $1.43 per week at sixteen to twenty months, 
from a Short-horn cross on common cows. This would 
give $122 per head at twenty months old — a figure that 
American feeders would like to reach. There is nothing to 
hinder them reaching the weights at that age, but they 
may seldom reach those prices. Yet it may truthfully be 
said that we can raise these steers or heifers at quite as 
good a profit as that of the English feeder — the cost of our 
animals being no higher in proportion to the price received 
than those raised in England. 

That we may see how the English feeder's account stands, 
let us copy his statement of the cost of a " baby bullock " 
seventy-one weeks old, or one year and nineteen weeks, 
reducing the figures to our gold currency: 

Purchase of calf ".'. $8.88 

Four weeks' new milk, six quarts daily, at 2d. per quart 6.16 

Eight weeks' skimmed milk, six quarts daily, at Ji^d. per quart, 

and two pounds of meal, at 1/^d. per pound 5.68 

Seventeen weeks, in June, July, August, and September, on a daily 

diet of two pounds of linseed cake, two pounds jjean meal, 

mangel, hay, grass, clover, etc 17.57 

Twenty-six weeks to end of March, five pounds of cake and meal 

daily, three-fourths bushel of roots, hay and straw for fodder. . 30.27 
Sixteen weeks to harvest, eight pounds of cake and meal daily, 

mangel, grass, clover— total 81.59 per week 25.44 

Attendance, seventy-one weeks, at eleven cents 7.81 

Insm-ance, interest, and rent of shed 5.54 

Total $107.35 



BABY BEEF. 251 

This estimate shows the young bullock, born in the 
spring and sold at harvest time the next year, costs $1.51 
per week, and should be worth, according to Mr. Stanford's 
average, $108.02. The value of the manure is estimated at 
twenty per cent, of the cost of the food ($85.12) or $17.02. 
The account stands thus: 

Dr.— A bullock 71 weeks old $107.35 

Profit 17.69 

Total $125.04 

Cr.—K bullock sold at 71 weeks old $108.02 

Value of manure 17 . 03 

Total $135.04 

This is an instructive exhibit of the most profitable 
form of English stock feeding. The English farmer is 
obliged to take his profit in the manure account, which the 
American farmer too seldom takes the trouble to estimate. 
It is to be considered, also, that this English farmer is 
merely a tenant, and estimates the value of the manure to 
the tenant, to be applied to the land of his landlord. A 
study of this fact would be of the greatest value to the 
American farmer who holds the fee simple of his laud, but 
is less desirous of improving it than the tempoi-ary holder 
of an English farm. The sooner our farmers shall study 
this manure problem, connected with cattle feeding, the 
better it will be for their permanent prosperity. It will 
also be noted that the food is charged at figures as much 
higher than our current rates as the price of beef is higher 
there than here. Cake is the principal food that the 
English farmer buys ; and, therefore, when he turns his 
own crops into meat and realizes full prices for them, 
besides saving the manure for his land and laying the 
foundation for more crops, he properly thinks himself on 
the prosperous road. 

We must here contrast the cost of keep of such young 
bullock in this country, that we may get a proper com- 



252 FEEDIlfG ANIMALS. 

parison of the situation here and there. On page 241 an 
estimate is made for first-rate keep for such young animal 
during the first 12 months in the Western States, and the 
cost found to be $12.88 for the first 6 months, and $14.11 
for the second 6 months; making 12 months cost 126.99, 
with an addition of 20 per cent, for the Eastern States, 
making the cost in the latter 132.38; whilst the food alone 
cost $56,18 to the English farmer. Perhaps many readers 
will desire to see in detail the cost of a " baby bullock " of 
71 weeks in this country, calculated on the same plan of 
feeding as given in Mr. Evershed's formula. We will 
calculate this for the West, which will require an addition 
of 10 to 20 per cent, to the grain ration to adapt it to the 
Eastern States. That it may have more than a temporary 
value, it will be estimated on average prices for a series of 
years, and not on the present high figures for grain. 

Purchase of calf $ 5.00 

4 weeks' new milk, 14 lbs. daily, at Ic 3 . 93 

10 weeks' skim-milk, 16 lbs. daily, at 3^c. ; 2 lbs. oats or finished 

middlings, at %c 4.02 

16 weeks, to about 1st of November, on a daily diet of 10 lbs. 

skim-milk, 2 lbs. oil-cake, at IJ^c. ; 2}4 lbs. oats or middlings, 

and grass or clover 10.00 

22 weeks, to the end of first year — 10 lbs. hay, 2 lbs. oil-cake, 

2 lbs. oats, 2 lbs. corn-meal 17.32 

19 weeks, to end of feeding 71 weeks — grass, 80c. per week; 3 lbs. 

cake, 5 lbs. corn-meal, daily 16.67 

Attendance, 71 weeks 8.00 

Insurance 1.00 

Total $65.93 

Our estimate shows the cost of such a young bullock to 
be 92 cents per week. It will dress about 600 lbs. in the 
quarters, weighing, on foot, about 1,200 lbs., and will bring 
on an average, in our market 6% cents on foot — or, say $75. 
If we count the value of the manure as 20 per cent, of cost 
of food — say $10 — the account will stand thus : 



COST OF AMERICAN BABY STEER. 253 

Dr.— A bullock, 71 weeks old $65.93 

Profit 19.07 

Total $85.00 

Cr.—A bullock, sold at 71 weeks $75 . 00 

Value of manui'e 10.00 

Total $S5.00 

This tabulation of the cost of our "baby bullock" shows 
that the profits are easier on our side tliau theirs, although 
their market price is 30 to 50 per cent, higher thau ours. 
There is no doubt that the American farmer has a larger 
margin of profit, even in our depressed market, than the 
English farmer in his. We know that we can produce as 
good weight and quality at the same age as the most 
skillful British farmer, and at a cost 40 per cent. less. 
Unfortunately the proportion of skillful feeders in this 
country is much less than in England, and therein is where 
we should make every efibrt to improve. If 50 per cent. 
of all the young beef animals were raised on a similar plan 
to the formula given, we should be able to double our 
exports of live cattle and beef. Unfortunately the surplus 
of such high quality is not large, and consequently much 
of a poorer quality takes its place, and thus injures our 
market abroad. Our foreign market for the best beef will 
grow as fast as the quality of our animals improves. 

Quality of Young Beef. 

Mr. Evershed gives some important testimony on this 
point. He speaks of a somewhat general opinion, that 
very young beef cannot be of the best quality, and says : 

" Beef is affected by the mode of feeding, and it is not 
the fact that young beef is necessarily poor. Mr. Post, the 
butcher of Ship street, Brighton, who supplies a superior 
class of customers, writes of some young bullocks of 
Charlton Court, purchased in January, 1874, at 1932 months 
old, and weighing 100 stone, 94 stone, 92 stone and 90 



254 FEEDING ANIMALS. 

stone: 'These bullocks, when slaughtered, were most 
complete bodies of beef; and the meat gave every satis- 
faction to the consumer, being very tender, aud of delicious 
flavor.' Mr. Post says of another lot : 'I bought of Mr. 
W. Stanford, at Steyning Market, on March 9th, five very 
superior Short-horn steers, under 20 months old, witli 
calves' teeth. Their meat is of most excellent quality. 
The heaviest weighed 111 stone. The flesh on the ribs, 
where quartered from the loin, measured five inches thick.' 
Aud, further, says : 'I have during the last three years 
killed a large number of the young bullocks fed by Mr. 
Stanford ; " and, after expressing a favorable opinion of 
their general quality, speaks of a particular one as ' full of 
fat, with large, thick flesh, finely grained, and of very 
superior flavor.' Mr. Duke, of Steyning, writes of some 
bullocks, under 20 months old: ' They were all remarkably 
ripe, handsome carcasses of beef, giving me and my cus- 
tomers great satisfaction, as they have always done. They 
carried an average of 12K stone (100 lbs.) of fat.' Mr. 
Glazebrook, of Steyning, writes: 'Some of the buyers at 
the sale considered I had given a guinea a bullock more 
than 6s. per stone ; but, from the experience I have had of 
Mr. Stanford's young beasts, I had confidence.' " 

These details give strong evidence of the high quality of 
this young beef, and show that there need be no fear of a 
failure for want of ripeness and flavor in the flesh of these 
young animals when the feeding proceeds upon right 
principles. 

There are many considerations in favor of this system. 
First. The less cost per hundred pounds of beef made at 
20 months or under than over that period. Second. The 
reduction of risk in shortening the market age. Third. 
The quicker returns from investment, and, therefore, the 
greater profit. We are fully persuaded that profitable 
feeding must establish a market age in this country not 



QUALITY OF YOUNG BEEF, 255 

above 24 months, and the best feeding will frequently 
reduce this to 20 months. 

The Economy of Young Beef. 

"We have just been discussing the quality of young beef. 
It is now important to show the reader the fundamental 
law of growth as proved by the gain which cattle make at 
different periods or ages. We have had no means of deter- 
mining this question in a great practical way till the insti- 
tution of the Chicago Fat-Stock shows. Some great lesson 
was necessary to be taught, in a practical way, which should 
show farmers, by ocular demonstration, the true system of 
feeding. They can see the bearing of facts presented tan- 
gibly before them in the exhibition of the best specimens 
of cattle of various ages, and this is an illustration which 
carries conviction. The author had taught, for years, tliat 
all profit lay in full feeding and early maturity ; but no 
statement could be so forcible as an array of cattle of all 
ages, from one year to six, with the exact age and weight 
of each stated. Seeing is believing. 

The show held in 1878 was remarkable as the first one; 
but the four exhibitions that have followed since, have each 
improved upon its predecessor, and all have given the 
classification of age, weight, measurement, and gain per 
day. In this respect our show teaches a much more prac- 
tical lesson than the great Smithfield Show of England. 
Sir J. B. Lawes has complained of his countrymen's want 
of exactness in estimating the weight of animals instead 
of actually weighing them. It is a very important point 
that we take a more practical view of the matter, and 
bring every animal to the scales. We adopt the com- 
mercial standard — substitute fact for hypothesis. And 
when we apply a demonstrated improvement in feeding 
to our 38,000,000 of cattle, the result must reach great 
proportions. 



256 FEEDING ANIMALS. 

We here present tables grouiDing the animals according 
to age, within certain limits — and if Ave take their average 
age, weight, and gain per day, the law of growth will be 
most evident. Some of these tables show less difference in 
growth according to age than others. We have arranged 
them arbitrarily according to age, ignoring the qnestion of 
breed. The table for the show of 1881, in the group of 
631 days old, shows but a mere fraction of greater gain 
than in the group of 903 days old. This was occasioned by 
associating three Devon steers with three Short-horn or 
grade Short-horns. The Devons gain, respectively, 1.36, 
1.15, 1.38 per day, whilst the grade Short-horns gain 3.17, 
2.05, 2.01 — the average gain of the six being 1.69 per day. 
And in the group of 903 days are two remarkable grade steers 
that gain respectively 2.21 and 2.11, which brings up the 
average gain of the groujD of eight to 1.58 per day. Still it is 
easy to see the effect of age upon the gain per day. It will 
be seen that the appropriate comparison is of the same 
breed with itself at different ages, and better still, the same 
animals at different ages. 

It will be seen in all the tables that the average gain per 
day constantly decreases as the animals grow older and 
heavier. In the fifth group of steers of the show in 1879 
the average gain is raised considerably by the remarkable 
steer No. 3(3, which reached 2,820 lbs. at four and a half 
years old. He gains .53 lb. more per day than either of 
the others. It would be very interesting if we had the 
periodical gains of this steer for each six months of its life. 
This would give a most important lesson of the relative 
growth, according to age, of the same animal. 

Let ns see what an important lesson these jaeriodical 
weighings would teach. We may reasonably suppose that 
the second group at this show were as thrifty and heavy at 
569 days old as the first group; that is, that they weighed 
1,249 lbs., and had gained 2.19 lbs, per day ; but during 



ECONOMY OP YOUNG BEEF. 257 

the next 379 days they gain only 232 lbs., or .83 lb. per 
day. This is only 38 per cent., or a little more chan one- 
third what they gained during the first period. 

The third group of steers were better for their age than 
the second group; but if we compare the gain of this 
group with the first — they were 671 days older, and they 
gain in this time 620 lbs., or .92 lb. per day — much less 
than half of the gain of the first period. 

But this does not show all the loss of feeding to such an 
age. If we had an exhibit of the food consumed by the 
steers of the first group in making an average growth of 
],2i9 lbs., and also the food eaten by the third group in 
reaching 1,869 lbs. weight, we should find the live weight 
of the latter to cost in food 40 to 50 per cent, more than 
the former ; that is, steers not only gain less per day as 
they grow older, but they eat more food to make this small 
gain. 

Steer No. 29, it appears, gained only 6 lbs. during the 
last year ; and steer No. 28 only 90 lbs. Both of these 
steers consumed more food during the last year than dur- 
ing their second year of growth, when they undoubtedly 
each gained more than two pounds per day. The whole 
case cannot be understood until the exhibitors give a his- 
tory of the food expended each year, as well as the gain. 
The reader will see what numerous questions arise on 
examining tables on next page. 



358 



FEEDING ANIMALS. 



Chicago Fat Stock Shows. 
Law of Groivth According to Age, 



1878. 





Age. 


Weight. 


Grain 
per day. 


4 Steers: 


Days. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


No. 7 


650 


1.480 


2.28 


" 8 


670 


1,275 


1.90 


" 27 


656 


1.420 


2.16 


" 28 


701 


1,520 
1,423 


2.17 


Average . . 


669 


2.13 


4 Steers: 








No. 5 


969 


1,705 


1.76 


" 6 


978 


1,600 


1.64 


" 25 


962 


1,885 


1.96 


" 26 


962 


1,560 
1,637 


1.63 


Average . . 


968 


1.74 


10 Steers: 








No. 3 


1,280 


2,115 


1.65 


" 4 


1,220 


2,060 


1.69 


" 14 


1,080 


1,470 


1.36 


" 10 


1,188 


1,285 


1.08 


" 20 


1,267 


1,475 


1.16 


" 24 


1,298 


2,305 


1.78 


" 23 


1,338 


2,185 


1.65 


" 19 


1,371 


1,655 


1.21 


" 13 


1,356 


1,700 


1.29 


" 12 


1,336 


1,705 
1,801 


1.20 


Average.. 


1,272 


1.41 


4 Steers • 








No. 1 


1,880 


3,085 


1.11 


" 15 


1,677 


1,595 


0.95 


" 17 


1,658 


1,645 


0.99 


" 18 


1,652 
1,717 


1,870 
1,799 


1.13 


Average . . 


1.04 



5 Steers 

No. 8.... 
" 16.... 
" 17.... 
" 26.... 
" 27.. . 

Average 

5 Steers 

No. 5.... 

" 6.... 



1879. 



585 
612 
500 
605 
544 



569 



845 
814 
710 



1,240 
1,397 
1,114 
1.196 
1,300 



1,249 



1,636 
1,449 
1,.316 



2.11 

2.28 
2.23 
1.97 

2.:^8 



2.19 



1.93 

1.78 
1.87 



No. 15 

" 24 

Average . 
6 Steers: 
No. 25 



Average 

4 Steers: 

No. 1 



Average 
4 Steers: 
No. 11 



12. 
20.. 
•30.. 



Average 



6 Steers 
No. 84 



Age. 



Days. 
939 
933 



1,059 
1,384 
1,394 
1,359 
1,311 
1,335 



1,240 



1,578 
1,593 
1,420 
1,.573 



1,541 



1,677 
1,689 
1,804 
1,643 



Weight. 



Lbs. 
1,474 
1,532 

1,481 



1,534 
1,649 
1,986 
1,968 
2,019 
2,069 



1,8 



2,240 
2,166 
1,979 
2,118 



Grain ' 
per day. 



1,703 



2,125 



1.930 
1,974 
2,134 

2.820 

2,316 



1880. 



130 

66 

82 

118 

87 

Average . . 
10 Steers: 

No. 70 

" 79 

" 121 

" 68 

" 80 

" 64 

" 76.... . 

" 56 

" 38 

" 57 



Average . 



721 


1,590 


710 


1,115 


671 


1,395 


696 


1.580 


642 


1,245 


585 
671 


1,490 


1,403 


908 


1,825 


884 


1,700 


849 


1.250 


1,064 


1,815 


1,018 


1,650 


940 


1,900 


921 


1,700 


832 


1,845 


910 


1,445 


852 


1,650 
1,678 


917 



GROWTH ACCOEDING TO AGE. 259 

Chicago Fat Stock Snows— Continued. 



8 Steers: 

No. 60 

"• 18 

" 55 

'• 54 

" 115 

" 116 

" 27 

" 36... . 



Average. 



6 Steers: 

No. 21 

" 59 

" 60.. .. 

" 60 

" 74 

" 6R 



Average . 
8 Steers: 

No. 23 

" 58 

" 58 

" 59 

" 95 

" 114 

" 113 

" 117 



Age. 


Weight. 


Days. 


Lbs. 


1,367 


2,350 


1,250 


2,215 


1,183 


1,875 


1,350 


1,720 


1,305 


1,270 


1,305 


1,170 


1,310 


1,875 


1,275 


1,575 
1,756 


1,293 



1881. 



Average . 
17 Steers: 

No. 8 

" 10 

" 11 

" 24 

" 25 

" 34 

'• 42.. . 

" 45 

" 47 

" 48.. 



Grain 
per day. 

Lbs. 
1.71 
1.77 
1.58 
1.27 
0.97 
0.89 
1.43 
1.23 

1.35 



719 


1,565 


614 


835 


600 


690 


614 


850 


622 


1,280 


620 


1,250 
1,080 


631 


880 


1,500 


928 


925 


969 


975 


882 


1,030 


862 


1.450 


964 


1,755 


872 


1,935 


872 


1,845 
1,4-26 


903 


1,421 


1,930 


1,309 


2,150 


1,362 


2,200 


1,873 


1,875 


1,055 


1,855 


1,085 


1,895 


1,324 


2,085 


1,190 


2,145 


1,224 


1,965 


1,242 


1,930 



2.17 
1.36 
1.15 
1.38 
2.05 
2.01 

1.69 



1.70 
0.99 
1.00 
1.16 
1.68 
1.82 
2.21 
2.11 

1.58 



1.35 
1.64 
1.61 
1.00 
1.75 
1.74 
1.57 
1.80 
1.60 
1.55 



No. 54. 
" 55. 
" 56. 
" 57. 
" 107. 
" 118. 
" 122. 



Average . 



Age. 


Weight. 


Days. 


Lbs. 


1,326 


1,335 


1,777 


1,410 


1,328 


1,230 


1,268 


1,075 


1,2-37 


2,095 


1,268 


1,520 


1.268 


1,995 
1,804 


1,325 



1882. 



11 Steers: 
No. 16. .. 
" 29.... 
" 29>^.. 
" 169i^.. 
" 21.... 
" 148.... 
'• 22.... 
" 38.... 
" 53.... 
" 23.... 
" 44.... 



Average . . 
15 Steers: 

No. 109 

111.... 

17 

113 

35 

169 

58 

2 

23 

6 

20 

18 

115 



116.... 
Average . 



Grain 
per day. 

Lbs. 
1.00 
0.79 
92 
0.84 
1.61 
1.19 . 
1.57 

1.38 



645 


1,620 


384 


1,140 


412 


1,105 


697 


1,330 


730 


1,985 


858 


2,220 


715 


1,600 


574 


1,410 


720 


1,475 


715 


1,600 


437 


8.30 
1,483 


626 


1,034 


1,905 


1,011 


1,850 


1,265 


2,400 


1,174 


1,945 


1.818 


1,545 


1,032 


1,030 


1,077 


1,940 


1,121 


1,705 


1,404 


1,865 


1,310 


1,840 


1,299 


2,050 


1,.305 


2,335 


1,613 


2,565 


1,636 


1,815 


1,644 
1,316 


1,880 
1,956 



2.51 
2.97 
2.68 
1.90 
2.72 
2.59 
2.23 
2.45 
2.05 
2.23 
1.90 

2.38 



1.84 
1.83 
1.90 
1.65 
0.85 
1.58 
1.80 
1.57 
1.32 
1.40 
1.58 
1.94 
1.59 
1.11 
1.14 

1.55 



We give these tables of five shows somewhat full, embrac- 
ing nearly all the prize animals under five years old. As 
they have been the most instructive array of • cattle ever 
exhibited, presenting the most convincing evidence of the 
growth of animals, at different periods, under the most 



260 FEEDING ANIMALS. 

liberal feeding. They were fed for exhibition, and would 
thus be fed as their exhibitors believed to be best calculated 
for rapid growth, and therefore are all fed under similar con- 
ditions. They should be thoroughly studied by the feeder. 

It is interesting to trace the same animal from year to 
year. No. 56, 1880, 833 days old, weight 1,845 pounds, had 
gained 2.21 per day. He appears the next year as No. 45, 
1,190 days old, weight 2,145 pounds, having gained 300 
pounds in a year, or 0.82 pound per day, or only thirty- 
seven per cent, of its previous gain per day. No. 107 of 
1881, 1,237 days old, weighed 2,095 pounds, gain, 1.61 
pounds per day — appears as No. 115 of 1882, weight 2,565 
pounds, having made the large gain of 470 pounds, or 1.28 
per day. But as this was the champion steer of the show 
in 1881, also in 1882, it was fed in the very best manner, 
but still it fell nearly one-third of a pound per day behind 
its previous gain. 

No. 116 of 1882, Lady Peerless, 1,644 days old, weight 
1,880 pounds, appeared in 1881 as 1,268 days old, weight 
1,520 pounds, with a daily gain of 1.19. The past 376 days 
she has gained 360 pounds, being a daily gain of 0.93 
pounds. Here then, is a loss of twenty-two per cent, in 
gain. There are many such cases in the tables, showing 
the law of gain in the same animal, and that the rate 
decreases as the age increases. 

Cost of Production. 

The managers of these fat-stock shows made a very 
praiseworthy addition to the prizes in the last, under the 
head of cost of production. This cost of production goes 
to the very root of the matter ; and when taken in connec- 
tion with law of growth, above discussed, it should be the 
key to decide the true system of feeding. If the young 
animal makes a more rapid growth, and if that growth 
costs less, and if the beef grown thus rapidly is of good 
quality, then it is simply throwing away food to feed the 



COST OP PRODUCTIOJf. 



261 



animals beyond the age producing the quality that the 
market demands. 

The following table is very instrnctive on this question 
of cost at different periods. It will be seen tliat the iirst 
year produced a large profit, and the value was greater than 
the cost at the end of the second year, but the third year 
cost much more than the value of the growth, and the 
whole cost of the three years was considerably more than 
the market price of the animals. 

Cost of Production. 
From, Birth to 12 Months of Age. 



Name of Aniual. 



Jay, No. 101 

Experiment 

Young Aberdeen 

King of the West, No. 18 . . 

Ciissi«s4th, N.I. 20^ 

Cassius .Mh. No. 29 , 

Hattie, No. 44 

Jim Blaine. No. 27 

Canadian Cliampion, No. 17 



ej 


M 


, 














f. 


c 


a 


w 


a 


o . 


<-. 


E-Q 


















■r- (jj 


o -^ 


■- a> 


4J 3. 


o « 






tH 


tS 


> 


$31.30 


800 


$4S.O0 


33 50 


710 


42.60 


31 67 


1,000 


- 60.00 


34 67 


1,000 


60 00 


31.47 


1,000 


60 00 


3f< 15 


1,090 


65 40 


19.75 


TOO 


42.00 


27.50 


950 


57.00 


33.67 


1,000 


60.00 



Cts. 
3.91 
4.74 
3.47 
3.47 
3.15 
3.50 
2.08 
2.89 
3.37 



From 13 to 24 Months of Age. 



Name op Animal. 



Jim Blaine 

Jay 

Young Aberdeen . . . 
King of the West . . 
Canadian Champion 



m 


en 


'J" 


m 


.a 


.C 




J3 










c 


C 


o 


a 


o 


o 




o 


E 


g 


UJ 


a 




"S ID 






be •■ 


O C3 

> 


Total 
moE 


bD. 


950 


$57.00 


$37.. 59 


1,390 


800 


48.00 


30.31 


1,370 


1,000 


60.00 


52.12 


1.600 


1.000 


60.00 


52.13 


1,600 


1,000 


60.00 


52.12 


1,600 



§5 

653 



$83.40 
82.20 
96.00 
96.00 
96.00 



o >> 



cts. 



262 



FEEDING ANIMALS. 

Cost of Fuodvction— Continued. 
From 24 to 36 Months of Age. 



Name op Animal. 


o 

a 

1° 


Vahie at 24 months 
of age. 


o 

li 


J3 
O 

a 

to 

TO 


Vahie at 36 months 
of age, at 6 cents 
per lb. 


'3 


Canadian Champion 

King of the West 


1,600 
1,600 


$96.00 
96.00 


$81.. 50 
81.50 


2,2.50 
2,250 


$135.00 
135.00 


Cts. 

12.54 

12.54 



The two steers fed to three years old cost each $168.30, 
or 7.48 cents per pound. They might bring this as extra 
Christmas cattle; but it is evident that they give a 
better profit at 24 months. Their market price was then 
$10 per head more than they cost, and we have seen in the 
domestic market in England that such animals, or those 
Bome months younger, are preferred by critical customers. 

English View of Cost of Beef. 

One of the most interesting questions relating to Ameri- 
can agriculture at the present moment, is the cost of pro- 
ducing beef for export. Sir J. B. Lawes, probably the 
best scientific and practical authority in England upon 
questions relating to meat production, read an elaborate 
paper before the JEast Berwickshire Agricultural Associa- 
tion, in 1879, a large part of which was devoted to the cost 
of food in the production of beef. This was incidental to 
showing the cost of manure made from cattle upon British 
farms. He made a very liberal allowance for the value of 
the manure resulting from the consumption of this food, 
and then made the pertinent inquiry, whether the balance 
of the cost of the food, after deducting the value of the 
manure, is paid for by the increase in weight of the animal. 



COST OF BEEF. 



263 



Dbscbtption. 




id 

1 

"3 
a . 
«•« 
<£ a> 

< 


CS 

•a 

u 

<D 
P. 
(B 

V 

o 
a 


;- *^ 
fthO 

il 

a — 


PRIZE CATTLE AT SMITHFIELD, 1878. 

Devons 


Weeks. 

116 
167 
215 
165 


Lbs. 

1,301 
1,568 
1,785 
1,456 


Lbs. 

1.60 
1.34 
1.19 
1.26 


Lbs. 
14.8 




10.5 
8.3 
10.6 


Average 


165^ 

221j^ 
i7SM 


1,527^ 

1,615 
1,964 
2,085 
1,731 


1.35 

1.95 
1.70 
1.34 
1.39 


11 1 


Herefords 


14 9 




10.9 
8.2 
10.0 


Average 

Short-horns 


171 

120 
160 
163 
172 


1,848X 

1,698 
1,960 
2,3.52 
1,876 


1.60 

2.02 
1.75 
2.06 
1.56 


11.0 
14 8 




11.3 
11.3 
10.5 


Average 


153X 

116 
151 
203 
160 


1,971 J^ 

1,588 
1,818 
2,390 . 
1,736 


1.85 

1.96 
1.72 

1.68 
1.55 


12.0 


Sussex 


15.2 




11.9 

9.1 

11.1 




i57X 


1,883 


1.73 


11.8 


General average 


162 

268.6 
271.7 
182.9 
174.3 
138.4 
139.7 
92.9 
95.7 


1,808 

2,085 
2,440 
2,115 
2,060 
1,705 
1,600 
1,480 
1,275 


1.63 

1.10 
1.28 
1.C5 
1.68 
1.76 
1.63 
2.28 
1.90 


11.5 


PRIZE CATTLE, CHICAGO SOCIETY, U S 

Steers— 4 years and over, 1st prize 

4 years and over. 2d prize 

3 years and under, 1st prize 

2 years and under 3, 1st prize 

2 years and under 3, 2d prize 

1 year and under 2, 1st jnize . 


7.1 
7.0 
10.4 
10.9 
13.5 
13.4 
20.0 
19 1 


Average 

NITEP.NAIS-CHAKOLAIS— FRENCH. 
No. 1 


170.5 

134.8 
156.4 
160.8 
174.0 


1,845 

1,478 
1,987 
1,893 
2,079 


1.66 

1.57 
1.81 
1.68 
1.71 


12.7 
13 6 


No. 2 

No. 3 


11.9 
11 6 


No. 4 


10 8 






Average 


156.5 


1,859 


1.69 


12.0 


General average of all 


163.7 


1,826 


1.65 


11.9 
10.11 











264 FEEDING ANIMALS, 

Witii a view to furnishing data for the solution of this 
question, he gives this last table relating to the well-fed 
animals of several countries, including some at the Chicago 
Fat-Stock Show. He says, in reference to this table: 

" Confining my attention to cattle, I shall first endeavor 
to show, by reference to published records relating to ani- 
mals of certainly above average quality, and undoubtedly 
liberally fed, what is the probable rate of increase that 
may be expected in such cases ; and, secondly, what is the 
average amount of food required to produce a given amount 
of increase." 

He complains that feeding experiments have not been 
so full as to give all the points required to solve the 
question of cost. The food or some other element in the 
calculation is left out. As everything relating to this 
question is of interest to the feeder, we quote what he says 
of the food required to produce 100 lbs. of increase : 

"Although the gross increase is less in proportion to the 
live weight as the animal matures, a larger proportion of 
such gross increase consists of carcass and of real solid 
matter, and a less proportion of offal and of water. In 
fact, the fattening process may be said to consist in great 
measure in the displacement of water by fat. At what cost 
of food has that increase been obtained? "We have no rec- 
ords on this point in regard to any of the animals referred 
to in the table. "We must therefore rely upon other data 
in arriving at a decision on this part of the subject. Our 
own estimate, founded on all the data at our command, 
partly relating to the recorded experience of others, and 
partly to the results of direct experiments of our own, led 
us many years ago to conclude as follows: Fattening oxen, 
liberally fed upon good food, composed of a moderate pro- 
portion of cake or corn, some hay or straw chaff, with 
roots or other succulent food, and well managed, will, on 
the average, consume 12 to 13 lbs. of dry substance of such 



COST OF GAIN. 265 

mixed food, per 100 lbs. live weight, per week ; and they 
should give 1 lb. of increase for 13 to 13 lbs. dry substance 
so consumed. In other words, there will be consumed from 
130 to 130 lbs. of the dry substance of such mixed food per 
1,000 lbs. live weight per week, producing on the average 

10 lbs. of increase; and 1,300 to 1,300 lbs. will therefore 
be required to yield 100 lbs. increase in live weight. If 
the mixed food contain no straw chaff, and only a moder- 
ate amount of hay chaff, the average amount of dry sub- 
stance consumed will be the less, and the average propor- 
tion of increase the more, or vice versa. Accordingly, we 
have assumed that on a liberal mixture of oil-cake, clover 
chaff, and swedes, as little as 1,100 lbs. dry substance may 
be required to produce 100 lbs. increase, and as much as 

11 lbs. increase may be produced per 1,000 lbs. live weight 
per week. The articles which yon are accustomed to speak 
of as dry foods, still contain some water. Thus cakes con- 
tain from one-eighth to one-ninth, and corn, hay and 
straw about one-sixth of their weight of water ; while 
swedes do not contain more than 10 to 13, or mansrolds 
more than 13 to 13 per cent, of really dry or solid matter; 
but the monster roots of which we hear so much, some- 
times contain only about two-thirds as much dry matter as 
moderately-sized and well-matured roots should do. Of 
really dry substance, such as my estimates given above 
require, 1,300 to 1,300 — say 1,350 lbs. — would, in round 
numbers, be supplied in the following amounts of each of 
the several descriptions of food enumerated, supposing 
them to be of fair average composition in that respect : 

Amount of each food containing 1,250 lbs. dry matter: 

Cakes \2)4 cwt 

Corn or hay 13 " 

Swedish turnips 5 tons. 

Mangolds 43^ " 

" The question arises, what would be the cost of 1,350 lbs, 
of dry substance, made up of a suitable mixture of these 
12 



266 FEEDING AKIMALS. 

various foods, to yield 100 lbs, increase in live weight, and 
whether this would be less or more than the 100 lbs. 
increase would sell for ? Well-bred and moderately- 
fattened oxen should yield 58 to 60 per cent, carcass in 
fasted live weight ; very fat oxen may yield from 65 to 70 
per cent. But of the increase obtained during what may 
be called the fattening period of moderately-fattened oxen, 
it may be reckoned that about 70 per cent, will be carcass. 
Supposing you get 8d. per pound for this, the selling value 
of your 100 lbs. increase in live weight will be 46s. 8d. 
Now, I think if you try to make up 1,250 lbs. of dry sub- 
stance by a suitable fattening mixture of the foregoing 
foods, you will find that it will cost you considerably more 
than 46s. 8d. Even if roots alone were used, which would 
not be considered good fattening food, the cost would be 
more if they were reckoned at their selling price, though 
less if taken at what is called their 'consuming value.' 
But with no good fattening mixture of cake or corn, hay, 
chaff and roots could 1,250 lbs. of dry matter be obtained 
for anything approaching the sum I have estimated as the 
value of the increase it will produce. It is further to be 
borne in mind that, weight for weight, store stock is gen- 
erally dearer than fat stock. You have also to add to the 
cost of the food the various other charges, such as rent of 
buildings, appliances, attendance, and risk. Taking all these 
tilings into account, I think it is evident that there must 
always be a very considerable proportion of the cost of feed- 
ing, although varying greatly according to circumstances, 
which must be taken to represent the cost of the manure." 
He then speaks of his tables, published some years ago, 
and many times republished in this country, in reference to 
the value of various cattle foods in the production of ma- 
nure. He says this table of manure value was much criti- 
cised in iiingland, as being too high an estimate; and as an 
answer to tins he says : 



VALUE OF MAlSrUKE OF FATTENING CATTLE. 267 

"Accordingly, Dr. Gilbert and I selected linseed cake as 
the best-known article of purchased cattle food; and after 
deducting my estimate of the manure value from the cost 
of the cake, we endeavored to calculate whether the remain- 
der of the cost could be recovered in the increased value of 
the animal. The best linseed cake was then quoted at £13 
10s. per ton, and deducting the manure value as given in 
my table, namely, £4 12s. 6d., there was left £7 17s. 6d. to 
be charged against the animal; and calculation led us to 
the conclusion that it was extremely doubtful whether this 
amount could be recovered in its increased value. In fact, 
linseed cake appeared to us to command what may be 
called a fancy price. At any rate, it was quite certain that 
it could not be profitably used, if not fully as much or 
even more than the amount of my estimate were charged 
against the manure. If the same mode of calculation were 
applied to sheep and to pigs, it would be found, in their 
case also, that the cost of their food is more than the value 
ol the increase it produces." 

This shows us how difficult it must be in England to 
grow beef with such dear food, even with the exceptionally 
high price he mentions of about 11 cents, our money, per 
pound live weight for the increase. Dr. Lawes has studied 
this question more carefully than any other farmer in 
England, and in examining the experiments of others he 
finds this most important item almost universally left out 
of the statement — the amount and quality of the food fed 
to produce a given result, and the weight of the animals 
at the commencement of feeding is usually unstated. It 
seems that farmers in that country, usually regarded as in 
advance of nearly all countries of the world, are about as 
careless and inexact as their cousins on this side of the 
water. -This want of exactness in all the details of feeding 
experiments is almost universal with farmers everywhere — 
the weight of the animals is often given without the age ; 



268 FEEDING ANIMALS. 

the weight and age are given, and no clue to the food ; the 
kinds of food may be mentioned and nothing said about 
quantity. A complete exjDerimeut is seldom to be found, 
having all the elements stated necessary to determine the 
cost of beef at any age; and the reader may be a little sur- 
prised to find that Dr. Lawes himself, m speaking above of 
the amount of dry matter in food required for one pound 
increase in fattening cattle, should not give the proportions 
of such food, that the reader might know his exact ration. 
He speaks of a ration " composed of a moderate proportion 
of cake or corn, some hay or straw chaflF, with roots or 
other succulent food, and well managed, etc." This he 
states to have been determined partly from experiments of 
his own, and it is hardly excusable that he should leave it 
so indefinite. What is a ''moderate proportion of cake or 
corn ?" A dozen farmers would very likely each give dif- 
ferent answers. He is the most painstaking experimenter 
in England, and is said to keep most minute and accurate 
notes of all details, but here he leaves it to the judgment 
of every reader to determine the composition of the food, 
of which he says 12J^ lbs. is required for 1 lb. of increase. 
But if the mixed food contains a liberal amount of oil-cake, 
clover chaff, and swedes, then 11 lbs. dry subsance of food 
will make 1 lb. of increase. You must determine what is 
"moderate" and what is "liberal" in cake and corn. 

Dr. Lawes' estimate of 12K lbs. dry substance of food to 
1 lb. of gain, is no doubt an approximation to the facts of 
feeding in England and in this country, although we have 
had a better result than this in several cases of our own 
feeding, and have examined a number of other cases, in 
which the facts are authentic, with a higher result. We 
will give some of these, as bearing upon this question of 
the cost of beef. Some of these cases we have reported 
elsewhere, and will here give only a summary of them. 

Mr. John Johnston, late of Geneva, N. Y., emigrating 
to this country from Scotland 50 years ago, and bringing 



COST OF BEEF. 269 

with him the thrifty habits of a good farmer in his native 
country, placed a higher vahie npdn the maunre from fat- 
tening cattle than did the American farmers around him. 
He wished to produce all the manure he could for his 
wheat crop, and thus resorted to the purchase of cattle 
every year to be fed upon his straw and corn fodder, with 
grain as the principal staple of the food. Knowing the 
value of linseed oil-cake, he fed this with Indian corn-meal, 
to make a well-balanced ration, with straw and a portion 
of hay. When Mr. Johnston put up a lot of three-year- 
old steers to feed, he began with 2 lbs. of oil-cake and 3 to 
5 lbs. of corn-meal, and this was increased gradually to 4 
lbs. of cake and 8 to 10 lbs. of corn -meal. Sometimes 
wheat bran or pea-meal was substituted for a part of the 
corn-meal, and in this way he gave variety in the diet, 
which is very essential to steady thrift. He found, practi- 
cally, that this mode of feeding would give him an increase 
of from 1% to 3 lbs. per head per day, dei3endiug upon 
breed and thrift. Good grade Short-horns would occasion- 
ally make even more than 3 lbs. per day for 150 days, but 
this rate of gain was exceptional. His average was about 
2% lbs. per day for many years. He sold on an average, at 
two cents per pound more than the purchase price. He 
commenced feeding some time in October, and sold in 
March. If the steers weighed 1,000 lbs. at the time of 
purchase, and the price was $4 per hundred, they cost 140 
per head ; and at the end of 150 days would, as an average 
result with him, weigh 1,318 lbs., and bring six cents, or 
S79.08 — nearly doubling in value. He fed of oil-cake an 
average of 3M lbs. per day, or 525 lbs. per head ; of corn- 
meal, 9 lbs., or 1,350 lbs.; of hay, 8 lbs., or 1,300 lbs.; of 
straw, ad UMtum, or 1,500 lbs. Counting these at average 
rates of the last 18 years would give: Oil-cake, $9.18; 
corn-meal, $13.50; hay, $6 (straw not counted); in all, 
$28.68. This would leave $10.40 to pay for labor and straw. 



270 FEEDING AKIMALS. 

giving the manure free. His cattle were often purchased 
much lower, and oil-cake was 110 to 118 per ton during his 
early feeding. Mr. Johnston fed in an ordinary unbattened 
s-table — not warm. He got his pay abundantly in his large 
crops of wheat. It will be seen here that the store stock 
cost less than fat stock, and thus gave a margin of profit 
by an increase in the value of the whole animal, otherwise 
Mr, Johnston's cattle would have often been fed at a loss. 
It will be observed, also, that if the dry substance of the 
food is all counted, including straw, it will amount to 26.23 
lbs. per day; and Lawes' formula of 12)^ lbs. to the pound 
gain is 26.40 lbs., proving very closely in this case the cor- 
rectness of his estimate. 

The author visited Mr. Otis S. Lewis, of Orleans County, 
N. Y., in 1870, who fed upon a somewhat different plan. 
His plan was to buy, in the Buffalo cattle yards, about the 
first of December, thrifty bullocks from the West, averag- 
ing 1,200 to 1,300 lbs. He selected, as far as he could, 
cattle that had been handled, so that they might take 
kindly to a warm stable. He bought them in a moderately 
fat condition, and fed them about one hundred days, in a 
warm stable, tied in a roomy stall, and they were not 
turned out until sold. The daily ration was made up of 
5 lbs. of early-cut and nicely-cured clover hay, 15 lbs. of 
straw, 9 lbs. of corn-meal, and one-half bushel of swede 
turnips, pulped and mixed with the short-cut hay, straw, 
and meal, and theii all thoroughly steamed together. 
Sometimes 4 lbs. of wheat middlings were substituted for so 
much of the corn-meal. This ration came out of the steam 
box Avith a most savory and appetizing smell, and the cattle 
ate it with great relish. His lot of 25 head at this time 
cost six cents, and averaged 1,250 lbs. per head. At the 
end of one hundred days they averaged 1,550 lbs., having 
gained 3 lbs. per day. They sold at 7% cents, bringing an 
average price of $120.12, and, costing 175 per head, gave an 



COST OF BEEF. 271 

increase in sale price of 145.13. He estimated the cost of 
food, besides straw, at $20 per head, and the actual cost of 
labor at $4, leaving 120.12 to pay for straw and profit. In 
other years the cost and sale price of the cattle were differ- 
ent, but the result was nearly similar. This ration seemed 
to have the same effect upon the cattle as the most succu- 
lent grass, and produced a gain nearly equal to the most 
favorable pasturage at the best season. Mixing pulped 
turnij^s with other food, and steaming, diffused the odor 
through the mass, rendering the food so palatable that the 
animal ate with a zest to the limit of its digestion. It 
will be noted in this case that the total dry substance of 
all the food taken is only 28 lbs., which is only 9.33 lbs. of 
dry food to 1 lb. gain, instead of 12)^ lbs., according to 
Lawes' formula. Is this the result of cooking — rendering 
so much larger percentage of food digestible? It will be 
observed that the quality of the food is hardly as good as 
that fed by Mr. Johnston. But there is another element 
to be taken into account — that of a warm stable — which 
would reduce the food required to sustain animal heat. 
Both of these facts may perhaps account for the difference. 
The author has some cases to give of his own feeding. 
He bought 40 head of small cattle, of two and a half and 
three and a half years old, that had been fed so poorly that 
they were very light for their age, and, although healthy, 
many of them were in an unthrifty condition. The aver- 
age weight of the lot was only 850 lbs. They were placed 
in a warm stable, and fed for sixty days before they got 
into a thrifty condition. During this sixty days they 
gained on an average only 35 lbs. per head. They were 
then put upon the following average ration for 90 days : 
oil-meal, 2 lbs.; wheat middlings, 4 lbs.; corn-meal, 6 lbs.; 
hay, 5 lbs.; straw, 11 lbs., per head per day. The oil-meal, 
corn-meal and bran were mixed with the short-cut straw, 
and all thoroughly steamed together. This was given in 



273 FEEDING ANIMALS. 

two feeds, morning and night, and 5 lbs, of long hay was 
given at noon. During the last sixty days one gallon of 
cheap molasses was dissolved in the water for wetting the 
straw for the steamed ration. This was a small amount of 
sweet to be diffused through 90 bushels, but it added so 
decidedly to its flavor as to stimulate the appetite. These 
steers gained, on an average, 20 IM lbs. per head, or 2.23 
lbs. per day; this is equal to 10.67 lbs. of dry substance of 
food to each pound gain in live weight. This is 14 per 
cent, under Lawes' estimate of food to one of gain. This 
may also be owing to a warm stable, and cooking the food. 
A few years later, we fed 10 head of three-year-old steers 
for 100 days, keeping an accurate account of the daily 
ration, and their increase each 30 days, for the whole 
period. They were of grade Short-horn blood (sired by a 
seven-eighths blood bull), had been well raised, as that 
term is generally understood, and accustomed from calf- 
hood to be handled and stabled. They averaged 1,210 lbs. 
per head, and cost 43^ cents, or 154.45 per head. Being in 
a thrifty condition, and accustomed to good shelter, they 
took kindly to their new quarters when put up, November 
20th. This lot of steers, being in condition for rapid fat- 
tening, we gave the following combined ration, made by 
grinding together 10 bushels of corn (560 lbs.), 8 bushels 
of oats and peas, grown together (384 lbs.), and 1 bushel of 
flax-seed (56 lbs.) — making 1,000 lbs. This is the propor- 
tion, and, when evenly mixed and ground fine, furnishes a 
fattening ration most complete. This ration, then, cost 
11.10 per 100 lbs. The ration of grain was increased grad- 
ually from 10 lbs. up to 15 lbs. per head, per day, and the 
average was 13M lbs. per day. This Avas mixed with 2H 
bushels of short-cut straw, with 2 ounces of salt, all well 
steamed together, as the daily ration of each steer, given in 
two feeds, morning and evening, Avith 6 lbs. of long hay at 
noon. This proportion of flax-seed makes the ration just 



WHOLE COST OF BULLOCK. 273 

laxative enough for health, and its oil is also worth all it 
costs in laying on fat. The corn is very rich in starch, and 
the peas, oats and flax-seed in albuminoids ; and the straw 
is so softened by the steaming, and so permeated with the 
flavor of the grain, as to give it a fine relish for the steers. 
The increase of the steers in live weight was 300 lbs. per 
head, or 3 lbs. per day. These steers sold for 6^ cents live 
weight; and the account stood thus: 

Dr. 

10 steers, 12.100 lbs., at i}i cents. $544.50 

18,250 lbs. of grain, at $1. 10 145.75 

6,000 lbs. of hay, at 60 cents 36.00 

13,500 lbs. of straw, at 40 cents 54.00 

$780.25 
Cr. 
By 10 steers, 15,100 lbs., at 6>^ cents 943.75 

Balance to pay labor and profit $165.50 

Here the amount of dry substance in the food is only 
9.51 lbs. for one pound increase, or 24 per cent, less than 
Lawes' estimate ; and here, again, we see the effect of cook- 
ing and awarm stable. It is also evident that such thrifty 
steers will pay for feeding, while cattle of the slow-growing 
class are always fed at a loss. In this last case everything 
fed is charged at full prices, and yet the increase in weight 
fully pays all, with a respectable balance. It is true that 
the 3,000 lbs. increase, at GM cents would not pay for the 
food ; but this increase renders the whole carcass worth IM 
cents per pound more, and this is a legitimate part of the 
increase. Here the actual cost of food for each pound 
increase was 7.83 cents; but Mr. Lawes says, that at this 
stage of feeding 70 per cent, of this increase consists of 
valuable carcass, and this would render it worth one-sixth 
more than the average of tlie whole carcass. 

Whole Cost of the Bullock. 

But we can never arrive at the cost of beef until wo 
include the cost of the animal from birth to the last day of 



274 FEEDING AN"IMALS. 

feeding. The simple cost of food during 'the fattening 
period is very inadequate data for determining the cost of 
the carcass at the end. Besides, the proper system of feed- 
ing — that of early maturity — pushing the animal forward 
steadily to the market condition — will undouhtedly show a 
more favorable result than that of feeding through the fat- 
tening period. All experiments to that end have shown 
that it costs less to put a hundred pounds upon the calf 
than upon the yearling — less to put a hundred pounds 
upon the yearling than upon the two-year-old — less upon 
the two-year-old than the three-year-old, and so on. It 
also costs less to put a hundred pounds upon a thrifty ani- 
mal of any age than upon an unthrifty one. We cannot, 
therefore, make much valuable progress in determining the 
cost of beef until the cost of feeding a given number of 
calves shall be accurately noted from birth till they are 
matured and ready for the butcher. These will be com- 
plete cases-»-all others partial and unsatisfactory. The 
cases given at the Chicago Fat-Stock Show for 1882 are in 
point as far as they go, and we gave, on page 250, the state- 
ment of Mr. Stanford, of England, as reported in the Royal 
Agricultural Journal, of the cost of a "baby bullock" 71 
weeks old, specifying the food for each period of feeding. 
And this is based upon the accurately-observed and noted 
facts of feeding many such young bullocks. Mr. Stanford 
finds the cost to be $107.35 for 71 weeks, and he sells his 
"baby bullocks," on the average, for $108. He finds his 
profit in the manure. "We estimated the cost of raising 
such animal in this country at $65. This- was the differ- 
ence in the cost of food. If these animals gained at the 
same rate as the prize young animals at the Chicago Fat- 
Stock Show, they would weigh about 1,150 lbs. alive. This 
would make the cost per pound about b}4 cents — a price 
that the home market would always warrant. It may be 
considered as a proof of the unpractical character of the 



GROWING CATTLE FOR BEEF. 275 

management of our agricultural college farms that not one 
has yet given us a careful experiment, or, in fact, any ex- 
periment, to show the cost of raising a bullock. These 
farms are designed for this special work, in regions where 
cattle-feeding is one of the principal elements of agricul- 
ture. Here should be all the facilities for conducting 
accurate experiments, and just the talent required to make 
them in all respects complete. How many years must yet 
elapse before these institutions shall comprehend their 
mission ? 

Growing Cattle for Beef. 

When the farmer shall fully understand that all his suc- 
cess in cattle-feeding must depend upon skill in breeding 
and feeding, he will then commence the study of this sub- 
ject in earnest. He will not expect to find a breed with 
such wonderful characteristics as to grow into capacious 
forms of beauty and profit without an equivalent expendi- 
ture of food. 

We have treated of feeding young animals, and especially 
the calf, and made some estimates of the cost of raising a 
first-rate calf* to one year old. We have illustrated the law 
of growth, by English examples, and by the premiums 
awarded at Chicago on the ''cost of production," quoting 
also from the experiments of Sir J. B. Lawes on the cost of 
food to produce a pound live-weight, illustrated by English. 
French and American cattle, all proving, conclusively, the 
economy of early maturity. 

We now propose to take these animals of a year or more 
old, and discuss their feeding till ripened for the market. 
And this subject grows more and more important every 
year. The history, of the exportation of beef to England 
during the last few years, fully realizes the reasonable 
expectations of American cattle-growers. And, what ren- 
ders the situation the more pleasant, the English farmers 
are becoming quite reconciled to this importation of dressed 



276 FEEDING ANIMALS. 

beef, because it enables them to prevent the importation of 
live cattle from the Continent, and thus j^revent the de- 
struction of their herds by disease. Here the American 
feeder may meet the English farmer in competition, at 
Liverpool or London, on even more than equal terms, be- 
cause the cost of transportation is much less than the 
advantage possessed by the American farmer in cheaper 
land, and, consequently, cheaper food. Everything seems 
to point to the rajoid growth of this trade in fresh meat 
and live cattle to be slaughtered on arrival; and it is highly 
probable that our cattle products will, in a few years, reach 
a figure in our exports little, if any, less than one hundred 
millions. We have, therefore, the greatest incentive to 
improve our process of cattle-feeding, that we may lay the 
foundation for the most provident and profitable system of 
tillage. 

Home-Bked Cattle. 

Although breeding is not included in the plan we had 
laid out, yet judicious management of the animals is one of 
the primary considerations required in successful feeding. 
Kind treatment and growth, gentleness and the graceful 
lines of animal beauty, are all closely related to each other. 
The skillful feeder must study the effect of excitement 
upon the animal system, and of excessive muscular exer- 
tion upon the deposit of fat. When he learns that excite- 
ment will cause a cow to secrete milk almost devoid of 
cream, he will see that the steer cannot deposit fat when 
its nervous system is disturbed. Nervous excitement in 
the human race is known as always opposed to a fleshy 
habit. Nervous excitement seems to consume very rapidly 
the fat of the body. " Laugh and grow fat," has become a 
proverb. So the quiet, easy, undisturbed animal makes a 
good use of all its surplus food in laying on flesh and fat. 
How very important, then, that the feeder should rear all 
his animals in the atmosphere of kindness — that they 



HOME-BRED CATTLE. 277 

should regard his presence with pleasure — and no rough- 
ness be used among them. Ill-temper in a herdsman may 
be almost as destructive to profits in cattle-feeding as 
pleuro-pneumonia in the herd. Home-bred animals, treated 
with this full measure of kindness, and fed intelligently, 
will make a steady growth from the beginning to the last 
day of ripening for market. It requires several months for 
cattle in a strange place to get over the nervous excitement 
consequent on the change. This is the sti-ong argument 
for raising your own animals. They are kept on the same 
plan through the whole period — no new habits to learn, 
and, consequently, no checks in growth. The same system 
of full-feeding, described in previous pages, will continue 
through the second year of feeding on the early-maturity 
system, which endeavors to fit cattle for market in 24 to 30 
months. This can only be done where the feeder raises his 
own animals, and supplies them with abundant and appro- 
priate food from the first to the last day of his ownership. 

Summer Feeding. 

Farmers regard this period in feeding as the most favor- 
able and economical. It is no doubt the most favorable 
for producing growth, not only because succulent grass is 
the food, but the warm season is more favorable for laying 
on flesh and fat than the cold season, because so much less 
food is required to keep up animal heat. But it may be 
doubted whether feeding in summer actually costs less 
than in winter, because, as a general rule, the whole coun- 
try over, it takes three times as many acres to summer the 
stock as to winter it ; and only on the supposition that the 
labor in preparing the winter food costs more than the 
capital invested in the extra land used for pasturing, can it 
be considered more economical. Many of the best cattle- 
feeders, both in the United States and Europe, do not con- 
sider it economical to use so much land for grazing cattle. 



278 FEEDING ANIMALS. 

and, therefore, have sought to reduce this by soiling, par- 
tially or wholly, the stock in summer ; but this question of 
soiling we have considered in Chapter VII, and here we 
will discuss the 

Management of Pastures. 

A variety of food is as important in pasturing as in stall- 
feeding, and those pastures having the greatest variety of 
grasses are the best. Some old jjastures contain a large 
number of varieties, each having its peculiar qualities of 
nutriment, aroma and flavor. Such old pastures produce 
the finest flavored beef, mutton and milk. Too little care 
is taken in seeding for pasture to select a sufficient variety. 
Sometimes only one grass, and that not the best for pasture, 
although unsurpassed for hay — timothy — is sown. Others, 
more liberal, sow red clover and timothy. Both of these 
should be used in any selection of pasture grasses. Timo- 
thy, with all its excellence as a hay crop, does not stand 
constant cropping off by animals as well as many others. 
Clover furnishes a large amount of most excellent pastur- 
age, being rich in all the elements of growth, and starting 
again quickly after being cut or eaten off. 

Blue-grass or June-grass {Poa 2Jratensis) is native to tne 
country, grows over a wide range, and has no superior as a 
pasture-grass. It is seen in its greatest luxuriance and per- 
fection in warm, rich, strong limestone soils, and in the 
valleys west of the Alleghany Mountains. It produces 
very early herbage, ^nd, when 'kept fed off, remains fresh 
till frost, and, under light snows, furnishes a winter pastur- 
age. It stands close-feeding remarkably well, its creej)ing 
or stoloniferous root forming an impervious network of 
roots. 

Flat-stalked blue-grass, or wire-grass {Poa cotnpressa), is 
an early, low grass, common in the Middle and Northern 
States. It is a very nutritious grass, and, when cut early, 
makes excellent hay, but in small quantity; yet its greatest 



PASTURE GRASSES. 279 

value is as a pasture-grass, as it covers the ground, and, 
when fed close, will furnish much green food. It is also 
very tenacious of life, and will stick to a field when it gets 
rooted ; thus becoming a nuisance in a cultivated field, and 
requiring three or four plowings to eradicate ; but in per- 
manent pastures it is very desirable. 

Rough-stalked meadow-grass {Poa trivialis) is also an ex- 
cellent pasture-grass, and thrives well in shade. Its creeping 
root enables it to stand tramping by stock. As a meadow- 
grass alone, it is sometimes injured by a hot sun after cut- 
ting, but when mixed in with a variety of pasture-grasses, 
it is not injured by cropping in hot weather. 

Meadow fescue {Festuca pratensis) is a foreign grass, but 
has become acclimated in this country, is- relished by cattle 
in pasture or as hay — grows from three to four feet high in 
meadow, and has not been as well tested as it should be in 
pasture. 

Sheep fescue {Festuca ovina) is a pasture-grass much 
esteemed on dry, sandy and rocky soils, on mountains. 
It forms the principal part of the sheep-pastures of the 
highlands of Scotland, where the shepherds have the high- 
est opinion of its nutritiousness and value for their flocks. 
The Tartars seek an encampment where this grass is most 
abundant. There must be many locations in this country 
where it will have a high value for pasture. It grows 
somewhat in bunches. 

Orchard-grass {Dactylis glonierata) is well adapted for 
pasturage, and on rich, inclining to heavy soils, will pro- 
duce a large amount of excellent green food. It must be 
kept eaten close, and not allowed to get large, as it then 
becomes woody. It sjjrings up very quickly after being 
eaten off, and will thus afford a constant pasturage through 
the whole season. This grass is much inclined to grow in 
tussocks, and leave vacant spaces to be filled by other 
grasses. 



280 FEEDIN"G ANIMALS. 

Eed-top or herds-grass [Agi-ostis vulgaris) delights in a 
moist soil, and with this grows well on a soil of almost 
any texture. It should not be omitted in a pasture soil 
fitted to it. Although it is not quite as nutritious as June- 
grass, yet it makes good pasture, and very good stock hay. 

Sweet-scented vernal grass {Anthroj-antlmm odoratum) is 
by some considered an excellent pasture-grass, which ex- 
hales a most agreeable perfume, and is often found in the 
hay of the Eastern States. It is said to give an agreeable 
flavor to milk, and assists in improving the flavor of beef 
grown upon it with other grasses. This grass afibrds both 
early and late pasturage, and flourishes best in a dry, sandy 
or gravelly loam. Some assert that cattle will not eat it in 
pasture, and that it is not valuable for hay, but the analysis 
given of it on page 153 shows it equal to red-top. It has a 
good reputation as a pasture-grass with many careful ob- 
servers. It starts quick after cutting, and is thus consid- 
ered valuable for lawns. 

There are many grasses natural to the Missouri Eiver 
region and the liocky Mountain region, some of which will 
be found in our tables of analyses on pages 146-48, 
among which are Androjjogon furcatus, called blue-joint, 
which is said to compose about 40 per cent, of the grass in 
Missouri River region, and one-sixth of the grass in the 
Eocky Mountain region ; Andropogo7i scojjarious, called 
broom-grass, occupying some 20 per cent, of the former 
and 10 per cent, of the latter region ; Sorghum nutans, 
called wood-grass, is also largely found in these regions. 
The bufiiilo-grass {Bucliloe dactyloides), of which so much 
is said in praise, covers only about one-twentieth part of 
these regions. Sheep fescue is said to cover some 20 per 
cent, of the Eocky Mountain region. 

An old pasture has many more grasses than here enum- 
erated among the cultivated grasses, and the greater the 
variety the better for the thrift of the cattle. 



TEMPORAKY PASTUEES. 281 

As a further aid to understanding the individual value 
of these grasses we refer to the analyses of them given on 
pages 153-7. 

The whole list of grasses above described can only be 
used in permanent pastures, and for these too great a 
variety of successful grasses cannot be sown. We have a 
great number of natural grasses in this country which have 
never been tested in cultivation, but from which many 
might, no doubt, be selected to enrich our permanent 
pastures. 

But we must have also in our rotation tillage. 

Temporary Pastures. 

In the older-settled States there are comparatively few 
permanent pastures, except on land too rough or hilly to 
cultivate, or on woodland pastures. These have usually 
seeded themselves, but they may be benefited by sowing 
grass-seeds very early in spring or late in the fall over the 
spaces not well covered with grass. For this purpose red- 
top, wire-grass {Poa compi'essa) and orchard-grass may be 
sown. Mix them together in equal proportion, and sow at 
the rate of 15 pounds per acre. If this is dressed after 
sowing with 3 bushels of wood-ashes or one bushel of land- 
plaster to the acre, the seeding and dressing are likely to 
much improve the pasturage. 

Temporary pastures are varied according to the methods 
of tillage. It is very common to till land for the various 
grain and cultivated crops for 8 or ]0 years, then lay it 
down to pasture-grasses for 10 or more years, allowing it to 
recover for another period of grain tillage. We cannot 
say that we quite approve of this plan, but where such 
practice obtains, or where pastures are laid down for 10 to 
15 years, a larger number of grasses should be sown than 
on pastures for a shorter period. The following grasses 
and clovers may be used: Timothy 8 lbs.; medium red 



282 FEEDING ANIMALS. 

clover 6 lbs.; Alsike clover 3 lbs.; June-grass {Poa pra- 
tensis) 5 lbs.; red-top 5 lbs.; orchard-grass 5 lbs., and flat- 
stalked blue-grass {Poa compressa) 4 lbs. — all sown in spring. 
These, sown upon an acre should give a good seeding. The 
timothy and clovers will give a crop the first year, which it 
is best, generally, to mow and not pasture the first season, 
as pasturing is likely to injure the young grass. Timothy 
does not stand close cropping and will not probably last 
beyond the second or third year, but the other grasses will 
be well established before that and the timothy will not be 
missed. 

This pasture, if the land be in good condition, will go 
on satisfactorily to the time of plowing again. But in the 
grain districts the rotation is short, the land remaining In 
grass only from one to three years. In this case, only 
timothy and clover are sown, and in many districts only 
clover. The clover plant, with its long tap root, reaches 
down into the subsoil and attracts all the soluble plant- 
food within reach and brings it up to enrich the surface- 
soil. The root of timothy does not go much below the 
working-soil, and consequently does not enrich the soil 
like clover. The weight of clover-roots, to be plowed 
under, is considerably more than the crop above ground, 
and this is mostly the contribution of the subsoil. This 
renders it plain why clover is chosen to prepare the soil for 
a wheat crop. Clover also becomes a profitable crop, cut- 
ting from six to twelve tons of green food or from one and 
a half to three tons of hay. After the first summer clover 
stands pasturing well as long as it lasts. Alsike clover is a 
perennial plant, and is excellent for pasture. 

If the land is to remain in grass or clover only two years, 
then timothy 10 lbs. and medium clover 10 to 15 lbs, will 
be all the seed required, or if clover alone is to be sown, 
then 20 to 24 pounds will be required. If the land is to 
remain in grass five years, then 10 lbs. of timothy, 12 lbs. 



PULL-FEEDIKG IN SUMMER. 283 

of June-grass {Poa pratensis), 10 lbs. medium clover. 6 lbs. 
Alsike clover, should be sown. 

We have given only a few of the grasses that may be 
used in pasture; but deem it better to give a few that may 
be easily obtained than a larger list, many of which are not 
in the market. Pastures being the general reliance for 
feeding cattle in summer, particular attention should al- 
ways be given to their condition and the quality of the 
food they furnish. "We wish to point out the great error, 
too often committed by farmers, of compelling cattle to 
take what they can get in the pasture, whether it affords 
sufficient nutriment to keep up a full and steady growth 
or not. It often happens, in very dry seasons, and some- 
times in very wet ones, that the grass is quite inadequate 
to produce a vigorous growth ; and, lacking their full 
ration, the cattle make so little progress, that this most 
favorable season is practically lost — the gain being much 
less than the value of the pasture. Every consideration of 
economy demands 

Full-Feeding in Summer. 

That this statement may be fully understood, let us con- 
sider the circumstances. Much of the food of support is 
required to keep up animal heat ; and when the tempera- 
ture is 70 degrees, it requires only food enough to raise 
this temperature to 100 degrees, or to overcome a diiference 
of 30 degrees between the atmosphere and blood-heat. 
Now the fall and winter seasons will average a temperature 
of about 40 degrees in the Northern and Western States, 
and, consequently, the temperature must be raised GO de- 
grees to reach blood-heat; thus requiring as much again 
food to keep up animal heat in the cold as in the warm 
season. This is a large margin in favor of summer- 
feeding, and every farmer should make the most of it. 
How short-sighted, then, is that policy which keeps cattle 



284 FEEDIISTG AN-IMALS. 

upon scanty food in summer, expecting to do the heavy 
feeding in winter ! 

Another consideration of importance, favoring full-feed- 
ing in summer, is the fact that succulent grass is a great 
promoter of health, and grain-ieeding, in connection" with 
grass, is not so likely to disturb the digestive functions as 
grain-feeding with dry fodder. Nature furnishes its suc- 
culent food for animals combined with 75 per cent, of 
water, which has a sedative and cooling eifect upon the 
stomach and alimentary canal. Heavy grain-feeding tends 
to produce unnatural heat and fever in the stomach, and, 
when given with dry fodder, this tendency is not suf- 
ficiently counteracted; but a grain ration, with scanty 
pasture, seems exactly to supply the deficiency and produce 
a healthy growth. It is, therefore, entirely safe to feed a 
small grain ration upon pasture, and, when done judiciously 
and systematically, it will produce nearly twice the gain, 
in live weight, as the same amount fed in cold weather. 

The reader will remember that it takes about two-thirds 
of a full ration for the food of support, or to sup2:)ly ani- 
mal heat and waste, and the other third is the food of jiro- 
duction. This food of production gives all the profit 
which can be realized. Up to that point, all is expendi- 
ture without profit. This fact applies as well to summer 
as Avinter-feeding. When we consider that the growth or 
increase comes from half the amount of food required to 
support the anijtnal, how unwise it must be to withhold 
this small proportion of food, and thus receive nothing for 
the larger amount expended in keeping the animal alive. 
This fatal error is the cause of nearly all unprofitable cat- 
tle-feeding. 

Some of our American feeders fully understand the im- 
portance of pushing their cattle in summer. That most 
successful feeder, John D. Gillette, of Illinois, possessing 
the most luxurious blue-grass pastures, still, all over his 



FULL-FEEDIN^G IN SUMMER. 285 

pastures, stocked with grade Short-horn year-olds and. two- 
year-olds, will be found, all summer long, troughs filled 
with corn in the ear. that his steers may have their fill of 
the best grass and all the corn they desire. Thus he pro- 
duces cattle that sell at top prices in our market and are 
sought as the most profitable cattle for exportation to Eng- 
land. Some of his neighbors, seeing his good works, fol- 
low his example. 

Corn, as a single diet, is too carbonaceous to produce a 
proper nourishment of all parts of the body, and induces 
fever, but when mixed with good grass, is well balanced 
and makes tlie most rapid growth. 

The best English feeders have adopted the plan of stock- 
ing their pastures fully, and then feeding linseed-cake, 
corn-meal, etc., to help out the pasture. 

At a meeting of the London Farmers' Club, Mr. Tallan^ 
said he could aflFord to pay £12 per ton for linseed-cake, or 
£7 for cotton-seed-cake, and give it on second-rate pasture. 
It resulted in great advantage to the cattle, and to the pas- 
ture itself. He had tested this for some years upon light 
land pasture, and it was now able to carry double the ani- 
mals that it could five years ago. This had been effected 
by the use of oil-cake, to give the animals full-feed on 
second-rate pasture. He was able by this process to turn 
out steers that sell for £30 to £35 each, at 24 to 30 
months. 

This shows what might be done to improve the pastures 
iu our Eastern States, the improvement all being paid for 
by the beef grown. Here the cost of the extra food on 
pasture is not more than one-half the cost mentioned by 
Mr. Tallant. 

We do not advise that grain be fed upon all pastures, for 
the best pasture-grass can scarcely be improved upon by 
the use of grain. Crass must be the main reliance for 
.growing beef in summer; but there are times nearly every 



286 FEEDING AliTIMALS. 

season when a little corn, oats, middlings, or cake, will pay 
a large profit to feed in small quantity on pasture. We 
have known many cases where 20 steers were kept in a field 
furnishing full-feed for only 15, and where a profit would 
have been made by selling two steers and buying grain to 
feed the other 18 ; the 18 being worth considerably more, 
at the end of the season, than the 20 kept on scant 
pasture. 

Feeders are usually loth to feed grain on pasture, because 
this is increasing the expense of keep, and they are apt to 
infer increasing the cost of production. But the latter is 
an error. The grain increases the cost of keep, but, when 
properly given, cheapens the cost of the increase in weight. 
The grain may be so given as to be wholly the food of pro- 
duction, and it is only the food of production which pays. 
If the pasture (as is often the case) is only sufficient to keep 
cattle without growth, then the grain gives all the growth, 
and without the grain the pasture is thrown away, as the 
animals, not having gained anything in weight, are worth 
no more, if as much, as before they consumed the pasture. 

But farmers usually hold the opinion that grain is dearer 
in proportion to nutriment than grass or hay, but this is 
also an error. Most intelligent farmers, when short of hay 
to winter a stock, find it cheaper to purchase grain than 
liay — feeding less hay and more grain. Of course a pecu- 
liar state of the market might reverse this, but as a general 
fact grain is quite as cheap as hay, and the farmer should 
never hesitate to feed a small amount of grain on pasture 
when the grass is insufficient, for it may be laid down as 
a rule, that scanty feeding, to a healthy beef-producing 
animal, is wasteful feeding at all times. 

The soiling system, which has grown into favor with a 
considerable class, as an economical mode of summering 
stock, is treated at length in another chapter, and this 
system will be found a substitute for grain-feeding on 
X>asture. 



cattle-feedij^g in" cold weather. 387 

Winter-Feeding. 

And first, let us consider the true method of feeding the 
home-raised stock — those young animals reared in an 
atmosphere of kindness, that can be placed in stall, stan- 
chion, shed or yard, without feeling the confinement irk- 
some and becoming restive and nervous. The habits of 
animals must be respected by the skillful feeder, or his 
skill will not lead to profit. It is the indiscriminate con- 
finement of cattle in stable that have been reared in the 
open field, which has furnished the facts for the unfavor- 
able reports of comfortable stall-feeding as compared to 
open-air feeding in some of our Western States. Cattle 
that have been raised in the open field without handling, 
until two or more years old, had better be finished in the 
same state of freedom, only giving such shelter as may be 
enjoyed without confinement. But those animals that 
have been fed as calves in warm stables, have become 
familiar with their attendants, and take kindly to their 
comfortable quarters — these animals may be fed much 
cheaper and grow much faster by continuing them in this 
comfortable atmosphere. The feeder should always bear 
this in mind — that the animal is kept warm by the food it 
consumes ; its animal heat always represents food, and the 
amount of this food is always in proportion to the temper- 
ature of the air surrounding the animal. A question of 
economy arises here : Is it cheaper to overcome the cold 
with food — that is, by consuming an extra amount of food 
in tlie blood of the animal — or to keep out the cold by arti- 
ficial means ? A warm stable, say that can be kept at a 
temperature of 50 degrees, will save a large amount of food 
during the cold season. Let us suppose that the out-door 
temperature in a large part of the cattle-feeding districts 
will average, for six months in the year, 25 deg. (F.), which 
would make a difference of 25 degrees in favor of a warm 
stable, this 25 degrees of temperature represents more food 



288 FEEDING ANIMALS. 

than most farmers suppose. If 20 steers, all brought up 
alike iu comfortable stables, are separated the third winter, 
and 10 are fed in a stable of 50 degrees of temperature, and 
the other 10 are fed in the open air, it will take five tons of 
hay, extra, to keep those in the open air in as good condi- 
tion as tbose in stable; this half-ton per steer represents 
the loss of food from 25 degrees of colder temperature. 
But if these steers have been brought up wild in the open 
air for two years, and the third winter 10 are tied up in a 
warm stable and the other 10 left out as usual, the latter 
will be likely to do better, even with this exposure, than 
the former in their comfortable quarters, chafing and under 
nervous excitement from the unusual confinement. Still, 
let it be remembered that the 10 accustomed to being con- 
fined in the warm stable will consume at least one-half ton 
per head less food in maintaining the same condition than 
the 10 wild steers in the open air. This is the result of 
the laws governing animal life, which no training nor cir- 
cumstances can set aside. But a lot of wild Texan steers 
would be likely to lose more from the worry of confinement 
than from the extra cold in the open air, with freedom. 

These principles need to be well understood, for they 
have been the cause of no little misunderstanding of ex- 
periments reported. And this will also show the great 
economy of rearing our stock in such babits as will enable 
us to keep them in a temperature as little below that of 
summer heat as iwssible. We may then put on a hundred 
pounds live-weight with the least amount of food. 

Out-door Feeding. 

But these Chicago exhibitions of fat-stock have brought 
most prominently before the public the Western practice of 
out-door feeding, even for the best cattle; and although the 
fine animals there sliown may very reasonably be considered 
as an argument and an encouragement to those feeders who 



OUT-DOOR FEEDING. 289 

have no shelter, to continue this open-air system, seeing that 
it has here produced animals of which any feeder might be 
proud ; and although it shows so clearly that no excellence 
can be reached without full-feeding, and that, with it, fine 
animals may be raised under the worst conditions of climate 
and exposure — -thus fixing a most important principle in the 
philosophy of stock-growing — yet, if taken as a proof that 
oat-door feeding is the best and most economical system in 
winter, it will disseminate a mischievous error, and one that 
ought to be thoroughly discussed and understood on the 
basis of first principles. It is not likely that Mr. Gillette 
himself, who has exhibited the most successful grade 
Short-horns, would insist that those steers had consumed 
no more food than they would have done had they been 
accustomed to and kept in comfortable quarters during the 
cold season. He probably does not believe that the same 
amount of food will keep a steer warm in a temperature of 
20 degrees below zero as at 50 degrees above zero. He is 
well aware that this 70 degrees lower temperature must be 
overcome by the heat produced from the food eaten. It is 
not then economy of food that leads him to feed in the 
open air ; but he will probably say that, in his situation, it 
costs less to bestow this extra food than the exj)ense of 
buildings to house them, and the extra labor required to 
feed in barn from calf-hood. It will be noted, in the 
accounts given, that some of these steers were so wild that 
they could not be measured — and, being thus reared, they 
would not do well in confinement as we have mentioned 
in a previous paragraph. 

This question must be discussed from the standpoint of 
scientific facts, not of opinions. Mr. Gillette has been so 
successful in showing farmers how they may grow fine ani- 
mals under all the ordinary disadvantages that surround 
them, without shelter, and with only the canopy of heaven 
over them, he is admirably situated, in the extent of his 
13 



290 FEEDING ANIMALS. 

cattle-feeding, to give a large illustration of the compara- 
tive advantages of the two systems of out-door and in-door 
winter-feeding. As he mostly raises his own steers, he 
might rear 100 head to be fed in stable or under comfort- 
able shelter, accustoming them to it, so that they would 
take to it kindly, housing them at the first cold storms in 
the fall, and continuing their winter-feeding in comfort- 
able quarters till ripened for market. These should be con- 
trasted with 100 head, of the same age and quality, fed in 
the open air, according to his present plan ; both lots of 
steers to be fed upon the same quality of food, and accord- 
ing to his excellent custom, full-fed, keeping a strict 
account of the amount of grain and winter fodder eaten 
by each lot. The record of these lots of steers, compared 
at thirty months or three years, with the half-yearly and 
final weights, would be most instructive, and entitle Mr. 
Gillette to the grateful thanks of the farmers of America. 
We trust that Mr. Gillette will consider this, and consent 
to undertake the settlement of this important question in 
this demonstrative way. His facilities are more ample than 
those of any experimental farm attached to our agricultural 
colleges ; and as he makes it his principal business to feed 
steers for market, his methods would be likely to be more 
accurate — and tested on such large numbers as scarcely to 
admit of any important error. 

Mr. Gillette can also do a great service, even in his pres- 
ent mode of feeding, by weighing his steers at the com- 
mencement of summer-feeding, and at the beginning of 
winter-feeding, noting the gain during each of these peri- 
ods, as well as the extra or grain food given, per head. 
The question of the effect of temperature may be solved 
quite effectually in this way. No observing feeder doubts 
that it requires a large portion of the food to keep up 
animal heat during the cold season, but precisely what 
percentage is required has not been accurately settled on a 



OUT-DOOE FEEDING. 291 

sufficiently large scale. It would not involve very much 
labor to note these facts in Mr. G.'s feeding, and, when 
accurately noted, would become important scientific data. 
These fat-stock shows have been most pertinent illus- 
trations of the principles we have discussed. They demon- 
strated most comi^letely that profitable feeding must not 
extend beyond three years, and that the greatest profit will 
find a limit at 20 to 24 months. This simple lesson, taught 
in such a practical, eye-opening way, was alone sufficient 
doubly to compensate for all the expense of the show. 
The tenacity with which old opinions and traditional prac- 
tices are held and followed by the mass of farmers, is 
proverbial. They have seen their fathers, and heard of 
grandfathers and great-grandfathers, feeding steers till four 
and five years old for beef, and they look with suspicion 
upon any shorter cut to market. And with this four-year 
system has grown up the starving or half-feeding period, 
which still further reduces the profit; for, when making 
no progress, beef animals pay nothing for the food they 
eat. If the four to five-year system were one of constant, 
liberal feeding, producing an average of 2,000 to 2,400 
pounds' weight, and this the best quality of meat, the loss 
would be comparatively small to that of the periodically 
suspended growth system, which produces a weight of only 
1,300 to 1,600 lbs. in the same time — the one might excite 
the pride of the feeder, if it brought no profits, but the 
other would bring both mortification and loss. These con- 
tests for prizes in the fat-stock show ring will constantly 
point the feeder to the true economical system of growing 
beef; and these exhibitions will be such an unanswerable 
demonstration of the right way, that the old system will 
soon have no place, except in history. The farmer cannot 
see the force of an argument for a change, unless backed 
by numerous examples. 



292 feediistg animals. 

German Feeding Standard — Cattle Eations. 

We gave tables of analyses and the feeding value of the 
hirger share of foods used for cattle and other farm ani- 
mals, on pages 153-158. To know the best combinations of 
foods for growing and fattening cattle is the first requisite 
of successful feeding, and we shall extend this discussion to 
the mention of the most important points. The German 
experiment stations have experimented with cattle of vari- 
ous ages and under various conditions, and have given 
formulas for average feeding standards, in which they state 
the quantities and proportions of the digestible food ele- 
ments required for cattle at different ages, and fed for dif- 
ferent purposes. We are indebted to Prof. S. W. Johnson's 
report of the Connecticut experiment station for the tables 
translated from the German of Dr. Wolff. We believe 
Prof. Johnson was the first to bring these experiments defi- 
nitely before American cattle-feeders. We do not, however, 
think these feeding standards can be regarded as anything 
more than approximative — only as showing what has been 
found to work well in practice on a small scale, and as 
exhibiting the practical principles on which rations may be 
compounded. These feeding standards, used in connection 
with our extensive tables of analyses of different foods, will 
enable any one to make up feeding rations for himself. 
But we would caution the reader against supposing these 
to show the only practical standard of the proportion of 
elements in rations. We shall see that great variations are 
made from this standard in large and successful feeding 
operations. 



CATTLE RATION'S. 

Feeding Standards. 
Per Day, and Per 1,000 Pounds, Live Weight. 



293 





>> 
U 

r 


Nutritive 
Digestible 
Substances. 


8 
1 



o 

> 

a 
o 

EH 






Aniuaxb. 


"S 
o 

.a 
a 

a 


•3 
6 

1 


1 


■1 

> 

ia 


1. Oxen at rest in stall 


lbs. 

17.5 
24.0 
26.0 
27.0 
26.0 
25.0 
24.0 

22.0 
23.4 
24.0 
24.0 
24.0 


lbs. 

0.7 
1.6 
2.4 
2.5 
3.0 
2.7 
25 

4 
3.2 
2.5 
2.0 
1.6 


lbs. 

8.0 
11.3 
13.2 
15.0 
14.8 
14.8 
12.5 

13.8 
13.5 
13.5 
13.0 
12.0 


lbs. 

0.15 

0.30 
0.50 
0.50 
0.70 
0.60 
0.40 

2.0 
1.0 
0.6 
0.4 
0.3 


lbs. 

8.85 
13.20 
16 10 
18.00 
18.50 
18.10 
15.40 

19.8 
17.7 
16.6 
15.4 
13.9 


lbs. 
1 : 13 


2. Oxen moderately worked 


1 : 7.5 


3. Oxen heavily worked 

4. Oxen fat tenine;, 1st period 


1 :6.0 
1 : 6.5 


Oxen fatteninsc, 2d peviod 


1:55 


Oxen fattening, 3d period 

5. Cows in milk" 


1 :6.0 
1 : 5.4 


6. <Trowins Cattle: 

A ge. Average Live Weight 
Months. Per Send. 

2 to 3 150 pounds 

3 to 6 300 pounds 

6 to 18 500 pounds. 




4.7 
5.0 

6 n 


12 to 18 700 pounds 


7 


18 to 24 850 pounds 


8.0 



Per Day and Per Head. 



Growing Cattle : 

Age. Average Live Weight 

Months. Per Head. 

2 to 3 150 pounds 

3 to 6 300 pounds 

6 to 12 .500 pounds 

12 to 18 700 pounds 

18 to 24 850 pounds 



3.3 


0.6 


2.1 


0.30 


3.00 




7.0 


1.0 


4.1 


0..30 


5.40 




12.0 


1.3 


6.8 


0.30 


8.40 




16.8 


1.4 


9.1 


0.28 


10.78 




20.4 


1.4 


19.3 


0.26 


11.96 





4.7 
5.0 
6.0 
7.0 
8.0 



Dr. Wolff gives an illustration of the standard for a 
milch cow, by saying that 30 lbs. of young clover-hay will 
keep a cow in good milk; and that this contains of d'ry 
organic substance 23 lbs., of which is digestible — albumi- 
noids 3.21, carbo-hydrates 11.28, and fat 0.63. This is .71 
lbs. albiiminoids more, and .22 lbs. of carbo-hydrates less, 
with .13 lbs. of fat more, than the standard. Then he 
takes the richest and best meadow-hay, of which 30 lbs. 
contains of organic substance 23.2 lbs., having digestible — 



294 



FEEDING ANIMALS. 



albuminoids 2.49 lbs., carbo-hydrates 12.75 lbs., and fat .42 
lbs. This is almost exactly the feeding standard. But to 
show how a ration for milk cows may be compounded 
of poorer hay, oat-straw, roots, and grain, he gives the 
following: 

Ration for Milch Cows. 





8 
■s 

a 


Digestible. 


Kations. 


2 
o 

a 

B 


m 

0) 

"el 

•o 
t» 

ja 
o 

.Q 
u 

O 




12 pounds average meadow hay 


lbs. 
9.5 
4.9 
2.3 
5.6 
1.6 


lbs. 
0.65 
0.08 
0.22 
0.98 
0.63 


lbs. 
4.92 
3.40 
3.00 
2.70 
0.36 


lbs. 
0.12 
04 


20 pounds mangolds 


0.02 


25 pounds brewers' grain 


0.20 


2 pounds cotton-seed cake 


0.24 


Standard 


23.8 
24.0 


3.55 
2.50 


13.38 
12.50 


0.62 
40 







Prof. 8. W. Johnson giyes the following rations, calcu- 
lated from the table : 



20 pounds cured corn-fodder 

5 pounds rye straw 

6 pounds malt sprouts 

2 pounds cotton-seed meal . 

Standard 



13.7 


0.64 


8.68 


4.1 


0.04 


1.82 


5.0 


1.16 


3.70 


1.6 


0.62 


0.36 


34.4 


2.46 


13.56 


24.0 


2.50 


12.50 



0.20 
0.02 
0.10 
0.24 



0.56 
0.40 



Or, again; 



15 pounds corn-fodder . . . , . 

5 pounds bran 

5 pounds malt sprouts . . . . 

3 pounds corn-meal 

2 pounds cotton-seed meal 



12.1 


0.16 


5.55 


4.1 


59 


2.21 


4.1 


0.97 


2.25 


2.5 


0.23 


2.05 


1.6 


0.62 


0.36 


24.4 


2.56 


13.42 



0.04 
0.15 
0.08 
07 
0.24 

0.58 



CATTLE BATIONS. 



295 



A practical ration we have used to feed 40 steers, weigh- 
ing an average of 900 lbs., and gaining 2% lbs. per head, 
per day, is the following : 



Rations. 



Digestible. 



Pm 



12 pounds oat-straw 

5 pounds hay 

6 pounds corn-meal ...., 

4 pounds bran 

2 pounds linseed-meal 

Standard lor fattening cattle of this weight 



lbs. 
9.80 
3.98 
5.04 
3.22 
1.61 



lbs. 
0.17 
0.27 
0.50 
0.50 
0.47 



lbs. 

4.81 
2.05 
3.64 
1.70 
0.70 



lbs. 

0.08 

0.05 

0.28 

0.10 

0.18 



23.65 
24.30 



1.91 
2.25 



12.90 
13.50 



0.69 
0.45 



It will be seen that this practical ration corresponds 
qiiite closely with the German standard, only the albumi- 
noids are slightly less, and the fat more. One gallon of 
cheap molasses was added to the ration of hay for 40 head, 
which would nearly bring up the carbo-hydrates to the 
standard. 

The following is a practical ration which we fed to 10 
steers for 90 days; their average weight for the 90 days 
being 1,348 lbs.; and this was the average ration fed — the 
average gain being 3 lbs. per head, per day : 



15 pounds oat-straw 

6 pounds hiiy 

7 pounds coru-meal 

3 pounds pea-meal 

3 pounds (lat-meal 

1 pound flax-seed 

Standard for fattening cattle of this weight, 3d 
period 



12.25 


0.21 


6.01 


4.77 


0.32 


2.46 


5.86 


0.59 


4.24 


2.48 


0.51 


1.32 


8.48 


0.29 


1.29 


0.86 


0.17 


0.18 


28.70 


2.09 


15.50 


33.70 


3.63 


19.95 



0.10 
0.06 
0.33 
0.05 
0.14 
0.29 



0.97 

0.80 



This appears to be a pretty wide departure from the 
German standard for fattening cattle in the 3d period; but 



296 FEEDING ANIMALS. 

as this experiment was carried out under our own personal 
supervision, and as great care was taken to have weiglits as 
exact as could have been taken in tlie establishment of the 
standard, we must conclude that the quality of the food or 
its condition will vary the ration and its effect. That all 
the conditions may be understood, it should be stated that 
the corn, peas, oats and flax-seed in the proportions stated, 
were mixed and ground together, and then 14 lbs. of the 
mixed meal was mixed with the 15 lbs. of oat-straw, cut 
into inch lengths, and all well cooked together — that is, 
420 lbs. of the ground meal was mixed with 450 lbs. of cut 
oat-straw, placed in a steam-box and well cooked with 
steam, and this served for three days' rations for the 10 
head, except that 6 lbs. of long hay was given to each at 
noon. Perhaps the explanation is, that the cooking ren- 
dered a so much larger percentage digestible, that it was, 
in eflfect, equal to the German standard. These steers 
weighed 1,210 lbs. when the experiment began, and 1,485 
lbs. at the end of 90 days; so that 1,348 lbs. was the aver- 
age weight during this period. The meal ration was but 
10 lbs. during the first two weeks, and increased gradually 
up to 16 lbs., at the end of 60 days; making the average 
ration 14 lbs. per day. 

We have always thought the English feeders inclined to 
feed oil-cakes too liberally; that they feed albuminoids to 
excess ; and it is quite possible that the Germans err in the 
same way. If we examine the ration for the "baby 
bullock," on page 250, we shall find the albuminoids very 
large for so young an animal, during the last sixteen weeks, 
when its average weight was under 1,000 lbs. The 8 lbs. 
of cake and meal contained 1.89 lbs. albuminoids, the man- 
golds .33 lbs., and the grass, clover, etc., must have con- 
tained 1 lb. — making 3.19 lbs. albuminoids ; whilst in the 
case we gave, on page 252, the 3 lbs. cake, 5 lbs. corn- 
meal and grass, would not exceed 2.13 lbs. of albuminoid 
substance. 



CATTLE EATIOKS. 



297 



Clovee and Coen. 

American feeders must learn to make the best use of 
what they can produce easily on their own farms. Clover, 
with proper management, is an easily-produced and abun- 
dant crop ; it is also the richest of our artificial grasses in 
albuminoids. When fed in its succulent state, or cured at 
or before blossom, its albuminoids are more soluble aud 
digestible, and answer as a substitute for oil-cake or other 
nitrogenous grain food ; and Indian corn, our most abun- 
dant grain food, will furnish the needed oil and easily- 
digested carbo-hydrates. Let us give from the tables a 
ration combined of these two easily-obtained foods: 

Clover and Corn Ration for Fattening Cattle of 1,200 Pounds. 



Eations. 



20 pounds best clover-hay 

5 pounds straw or corn-stalks. 
14 pounds corn-meal 



Standard for fattening cattle of 1,200 pounds, 2d 
period 



lbs. 
15.20 

4.10 
11.77 



31.07 
31.20 



Digestible. 



lbs. 
2.14 
0.04 
1.17 



3.35 
3.60 



O 



lbs. 
7.52 
1.82 
S.48 



17.82 
17.70 



lbs. 
0.42 
0.02 
0.50 

0.96 
0.84 



Or Peas and Oats, dried in Blossom, with Corn-meal. 




20.60 
10 09 


2.16 
1.00 


9.61 

7 27 


48 




57 








30.69 


3.16 


17.88 


1.05 


Winter Ration of Western Cattle— Com and Stalks. 




16.32 
16.82 


0.16 
1.68 


7.30 
12.12 


08 


20 pounds ear-corn 


0.96 




33.14 


1.84 


19.42 


1.04 



298 FEEDING ANIMALS. 

We have given this latter ration to show how far it 
comes short of the German standard for fattening cattle. 
It is given as if the whole corn were as digestible as meal; 
and even then, it only shows about half of the albumin- 
oids of the standard. The 20 lbs. of corn can hardly be 
estimated as affording more digestible nutriment to cattle 
than 12 lbs. of meal, as much of it passes the cattle whole ; 
and if we estimate the real digestibility as only equal to 12 
lbs. of corn-meal, then the albuminoids will only amount 
to 1.16 lbs., instead of 2.70 lbs. It is very evident that 
any ration, composed of corn in the shock or corn standing 
on the hill, must be much below the German standard in 
albuminoids. And when we consider the fact, that mill- 
ions of cattle are thus fed every year in the West, and that 
these cattle are among the best in the market, we must 
conclude that the German standard is only approximate, 
and determined from too small a range of experiments to 
be implicitly relied upon. In fact, until the full statement 
of the German experiments is published in this country, 
we cannot judge of the evidence to sustain their feeding 
standards. 

There can be no doubt, however, that this standard 
corresponds pretty closely with the practice of the best 
English feeders, and with American feeders in the Middle 
and Eastern States, where oats, oil-cake, bran, peas and 
clover are fed to some extent with Indian corn. But it 
requires careful experiments, on a large scale, carried on 
for years, to settle practically the permissible limits of the 
feeding standard for animals of different ages intended for 
meat. And this is just the work to be undertaken and 
carefully worked out by our agricultural colleges on their 
experimental farms. Here should be all the facilities for 
the most accurate determination of these questions; and, 
as its determination is of the greatest practical importance 
in the profitable feeding of all our farm animals, there 



WASTE-PRODUCT RATIONS. 



399 



should be no further delay in instituting these experi- 
ments. They would reach a broader interest in agriculture 
than any other single set of experiments could. They 
would necessarily take in the comparative aptitude of the 
different breeds for laying on flesh and fat, secreting milk, 
and growing wool; or, in other words, would determine 
the most economical meat, milk and wool-producing breeds 
under precisely the same circumstances. 

Waste-Products in Cattle-Kations. 

As we have given a long list of refuse products in the 
tables, let us give special applications of some of the most 
easily obtained of these in fattening cattle. We will sup- 
pose the feeder to be within easy reach of large quantities 
of corn-sugar meal, and that it contains 28 lbs. of dry mat- 
ter to the hundred pounds, as found at the manufactory, 
and its cost is 25 cents per barrel, or 12>^ cents per 100 lbs. 
It would not be profitable to handle it at a higher price, 
where the distance of carriage is more than five miles, and 
it may often be obtained at 20 per cent. less. A great 
variety of combinations may be given, among which take 
the following : 

Rations for Fattening Cattle. 
Per 1,000 Lbs. Weight. 





u 

1 

o 

1 


DlGESTIBLK. 




RA.TIOMS. 


oi 

"2 
o 

d 

a 

s 

< 


IB 

1 

6 
1 


03 


i 

o 

o 
O 


18 pounds of winter-wheat straw 


lbs. 

14.6 
11.2 
3.6 


lbs. 

0.14 
1.28 
1.32 


lbs. 
5.19 

r.72 

3.68 


lbs. 

0.07 
0.72 
0.64 


$cts. 


40 pounds corn-sugar meal 


0.05 
05 








29.4 


2.74 


17.59 


1.43 


0.10 



300 
Or this 



FEEDING AKIMALS. 



RATioire 



12 pounds clover-hay . . 

6 pounds oat-straw 

40 pounds corn-sugar meal 

2 pounds linseed-meal.... 

Standard German ration.. . 



lbs. 

10.2 
4.9 

11.2 
1.6 



27.9 
27.0 



Digestible. 



lbs. 

1.03 
0.08 
1 28 
0.47 



2.85 
2.50 



lbs. 

4.. 50 
2.40 
7-72 
0.70 



15.41 
15.00 



lbs. 

0.20 
0.04 
0.72 
0.18 



1.14 
0.50 



Or this : 





9.80 
8.20 
11.20 


0.17 
1.18 
1.28 


4.81 
4.42 

7.72 


0.08 
0.30 
0.72 






0.05 


40 pounds corn-sugar meal 


0.05 




29.20 


2.63 


16.95 


1.10 


0.10 



Or this 



15 pounds corn-fodder.... 

5 pounds malt-sprouta... . 

3 pounds corn-meal 

40 pounds corn-sugar meal 



12.7 
4..1 
2.5 

11.2 



30.5 



0.16 
0.97 
0.22 

1.28 



2.63 



5.55 
2.25 
•2.05 
7.72 



17.57 



0.04 
0.08 
0.07 
0.72 



0.91 



Or ao^ain 



20 pounds best clover-hay 

50 pounds oorn-sugar meal 


15 3 
14.0 


2.14 

1.60 


7.53 

9.85 


0.42 
0.90 


0.10 
0.06 




29.2 


3.74 


17.37 


1.32 


0.16 



It will be seen that the dry matter is nearly the same in 
all these combinations ; but the albuminoids are consider- 
ably more in the last ration, composed of clover-hay and 
suffar-meal. If we substitute straw or corn-fodder for 



WASTE-PEODUCT EATIONS. 301 

clover-hay, then we must add some very nitrogenous food 
to make up that element. Straw might substitute one-half 
of the clover-hay. But if we take ration No. 4 and omit 
3 lbs. of corn-meal and make the corn-sugar meal 50 lbs., it 
will be a well-balanced ration and cost one cent less. 

It is evident that the feeder can make a profitable use of 
this refuse when he can get it at about the price men- 
tioned, or lower; but if he attempts to feed this sugar- 
meal with only straw, or some food poor in albuminoids, 
he will not succeed in the end. A little dry, ground fish 
scrap — say 2 lbs. per day — would balance the ration with 
sugar-meal and straw. The reader will see that these com- 
binations may be very numerous. Where oats are cheap, a 
few quarts would balance this ration with straw or corn- 
fodder. Malt sprouts are often purchasable at 40 cents 
per hundi'ed pounds, in which case this may be the cheap- 
est mixture, as in ration 4. Marsh hay is very plenty in 
many places, and may be fed to fattening cattle, to good 
advantage, with sugar-meal and 2 lbs. of linseed or cotton- 
seed meal. It is only profitable to use the decorticated 
cotton-seed cake or meal. This marsh hay is much better 
than straw, as it contains three times the proportion of 
albumiuoids contained in straw, and more fat. 

It will also be noticed, from tables given, that weeds can 
be turned to account. Even the white daisy, when cut 
before blossoming, is nutritious food, and the analysis 
shows it to be quite superior to the best cured corn-fudder. 
It is a vile weed when sufifred to ripen; but, if cut when 
young and tender, makes a good fodder. 

Linseed a^std Cotton-seed Cake. 

These waste products, properly utilized in growing beef 
and dairy products, rej^resent a most important element in 
American agriculture. The extensive purchase of these 
products by English farmers during the last 50 years has 



303 FEEDING AN-IMALS. 

largely increased the productiveness of British soil. It 
cannot be a matter of indifference to thoughtful American 
farmers that the most imjDortant elements in the great cot- 
ton crop, iiax crop and hemj) crop are exported. The fibre 
of the cotton contains no important element of fertility, 
although this is the principal value of the crop, commer- 
cially; and the oil expressed from the seed contains only 
carbon and water, which is supplied from the atmosphere ; 
but the cotton-seed cake is rich in mineral elements 
derived from the soil, and in nitrogen, regarded as an 
essential element in our commercial fertilizers. It is the 
same with the flax crop. The fibre contains little of manu- 
rial value, and the oil still less ; but the linseed-cake is ex- 
tremely rich in all the elements of fertility; and when this 
is fed, and the manure returned to the soil, comparatively 
little is lost to the soil. It is, therefore, one of the reforms 
needed in our agriculture to use these oil-cakes for home 
feeding, and thus get a more valuable return in beef for 
export than if the cakes were exported, besides, saving the 
great amount of fertilizing matter to replenish our soil. 
Sir J. B. Lawes estimates the manurial value of cotton- 
seed and linseed-cakes as greater than the average price for 
which they are sold in this country for export — the former 
at about $29, and the latter at $23 per ton. This estimate 
is made by the most accurate experimenter in England. 
Does it not appeal to the American stock-feeder and 
farmer to closely study the value of these oil-cakes as 
eattle foods ? These refuse products are estimated, in the 
tables given, as worth from 60 to 100 per cent, more than 
corn-meal for fattening cattle — they can usually be pur- 
chased at the mills at from $20 to $25 j)er ton — being 
exceedingly rich in albuminoids, and containing from two 
to three times the digestible oil in corn-meal. These 
are very concentrated foods, and only a small ration can 
profitably be fed. We have often expressed the opinion 



WASTE-PRODUCT RATIONS. 303 

that English cattle-feeders employ these cakes to excess, or 
beyond the point of profitable feeding. Eight pounds is a 
common ration with them for a 2/^-year old steer, and for 
older animals sometimes 10 to 12 lbs. per day. This ap- 
pears to be a simple waste of albuminoids and oil ; for this 
jjart of the ration alone would give from 2.70 lbs. to 3.30 
lbs. of albuminoids — when the whole ration, according to 
German experiments, only requires 2.50 lbs., and from 0.80 
to 1.60 lbs. of oil, instead of 50-100 pounds. 

The true use for these concentrated foods is as a mixture 
with straw, poor hay, chaff, corn-fodder a-nd roots, or other 
food poor in albuminoids. A million of cattle are fattened 
every year in the West upon corn and its stalks. This 
grain is our best fattening food, but is deficient in albu- 
minoids, and, from its excess of starch, is apt to create a 
feverish condition of the system. Now the use of even 
two pounds of oil-cake or meal per day will counteract 
this, and keep the stomach and bowels in proper condition. 
Cattle that are kept upon corn and dry corn-stalks through 
the Avinter are often attacked with what is called " impac- 
tion of the manifolds," or third stomach. This would sel- 
dom, if ever, occur with a moderate use of oil-cake ; for 
this would counteract the feverish tendency, supply what 
the corn is deficient in, and, by its oil, keep up a healthy 
condition of the whole system. We have found linseed-oil 
cake to have a similar efiect upon -cattle in winter as grass 
in summer; and there can be no doubt that this and decor- 
ticated cotton-seed cake are of great value to be fed with 
other foods. That the reader may see how various are the 
combinations that may be made of these cakes with other 
foods, we will give some examples. 



304 



FEEDING ANIMALS. 



Rations for Fattening Cattib. 
Per 1,000 Lbs. WeigJit. 



Eations. 



20 pounds wheat-?tr;iw . . . . 

8 pounds timothy-hiiy 

6 pounds cottou-seed cake 

Standard ration 

Or this : 

20 pounds corn-fodder 

6 pounds Indian corn 

6 pounds linseed-cake 



lbs. 

17.14 
6 8() 
5.56 



29.56 
27.00 



Digestible. 



0.16 
0.40 
1.09 



2.55 

2.50 



7.13 
3.47 
1.05 



11.04 
15.00 



lbs. 

0.88 
0.11 
0.97 



1.16 
0.50 



$cts. 
0.06 



0.10 



17.00 
5.13 
5.45 

27.58 



0.22 
50 
1.65 



2.37 



7.40 
3.63 
1.65 



12.68 



0.06 
0.28 
62 



0.96 



0.06 
0.09 



0.15 



It will be observed that both of these rations are deficient 
in carbo-hydrates; but the excess in fat will nearly make 
up the difference, as one pound of fat is equal to two and a 
half pounds of carbo-hydrates in form of starch, gum, etc. 
We will give a few more rations, by simply giving the pro- 
portions of the foods : 



No. 1. Cost. 
lbs. cts. 

18 oat-straw — 

5 bean-straw — 

6 cotton-seed cake 06 

No. 2. 

20 barley-straw — 

5 pea-straw — 

2 wheat-bran 01 

5 linseed-meal 07 

No. 3. 

20 poor hay — 

5 corn-meal 05 

5 cotton-seed cake., 05 



No. 4. Cost. 

lbs. cts. 

20 wheat-straw — 

5 wheat-bran 03 

3 corn-meal 03 

4 linseed-meal 06 

No. 5. 
20 fresh marsh hay 05 



5 corn-meal , 

5 cotton-seed meal 



.05 
.05 



No. 6. 

10 good meadow hay 05 

10 rye-straw — 

3 wheat-bran 02 

5 linseed-meal 07 



WASTE- PRO DUCT RATIONS. 305 

Ration for Oxen at Hard Work. 

lbs. No. 7. lbs. No. 9. 

20 best meadow hay. 25 oat-straw. 

10 corn-meal. 

No. 8. 
17 clover-hay. 
3 wheat-bran. 
10 corn-meal. 



5 wheat-bran. 

4 linseed-cake. 

No. 10. 

20 corn-fodder. 

5 clover-hay. 

2 wheat-bran, 

3 cotton-seed cake. 



These rations are not given to be followed strictly, but 
only as suggestions of the proper combination of food for 
fattening cattle and for oxen at work. The reader will see 
wluit almost endless combinations may be made from the 
food-tables given at pages 157-8. Oxen at rest do not 
require so nitrogenous a diet as when at work, or as grow- 
ing or fattening cattle. The proper nutritive ratio for oxen 
at rest in stall is 1:12; the same heavily worked, 1:6; cows 
in milk, 1:5.5 ; fattening oxen, 1st period, 1:6.5 ; 2d period, 
1:5.5; 3d period, 1:6; young grooving cattle, 1:4.7; those 
older, 1:5; 18 months old, 1:6; 24 months, 1:7. 

We have dwelt longer upon this matter of rations be- 
cause it is only recently that farmers have recognized the 
necessity of a change of ration for all the different condi- 
tions ; and they have been wont to consider a single food 
sufficient for the wants of cattle. These tables, showing 
how various are the qualities of the foods given to our ani- 
mals, and how deficient many of them are as a complete 
ration, will give a better idea of the necessity for combin- 
ing the different foods together, that our cattle may have 
the proper elements to meet all their wants. In our pas- 
tures all of these wants are provided for in the ten to fifty 
species of grasses found growing there. Some old pas- 
tures contain probably nearer one hundred species than 
fifty, and these furnish a bovine ration in absolute perfec- 
tion. Young grass contains a larger proi)ortion of albu- 
minoids than when nearer maturity; and it is found that 



306 FEEDING ANIMALS. 

cattle fatten faster upon grass 2 to 4 inches high than when 
of ranker growth. Each of these numerous foods of which 
we have given the analyses has some quality or combination 
of qualities in excess of all the others. It is, therefore, 
certain that the practical feeder will be much better quali- 
fied for his task after he has made himself acquainted with 
these qualities, and learned to combine them in the rations 
for his stock. A little study in this direction will enable 
the farmer to turn into money everything grown upon his 
farm. Every refuse product will then have a definite value, 
and swell the income of the farm. 

How TO Feed the Ooen Crop. 

Indian corn is the great American cattle crop. Any im- 
provement in handling this crop has a wide degree of use- 
fulness. A sliglit saving of labor upon each bushel fed 
would amount to millions of dollars. It is but a few years 
since that the general practice in the West was to let the 
cattle harvest this crop. They fed through the fall and 
winter in the .field, eating the ears and as much of the 
stalks as they desired. By this plan much of the corn was 
wasted ; but the saving of labor compensated for the loss. 
The cost of shocking and husking the corn was more than 
the value of the corn wasted. So it went on for many 
years, and is still continued by some Western feeders. In 
the older States the corn has been shocked and husked, 
and, in most cases, shelled and ground into meal, before 
feeding. Here is a large amount of labor expended, 
amounting to nearly as much in harvesting and feeding as 
in raising the crop. If this great crop can be utilized with 
a less expenditure of labor, the same result being reached, 
it will be so much added to the profits of cattle-feeding. 
Fed in the ear, or, as it is in the West, in the field, the 
greatest loss in grain occurs from want of proper mastica- 
tion. Cattle perform the principal mastication of their 



HOW TO FEED THE COKN CROP. 307 

food in rumination. When grain is eaten alone it is not 
raised and remasticated with the cud, but passes on to the 
third stomach. This is the cause of so much corn passing 
Western cattle without digestion, which is found in a soft- 
ened state by the hogs that follow the cattle. 

Now if the cattle could eat the corn and fodder together, 
the grain would be so mixed with the fibrous mass of corn- 
stalks that all would be raised and remasticated together. 
The grain would thus be so ground up as to prevent any 
considerable portion from passing undigested, and the 
whole would be utilized. The author, some years ago, rec- 
ommended a method of feeding the whole crop of corn 
together, by running stalks, ears and all through a large 
cutter, and reducing it all to fine chaff. By using a power 
cutter, run by steam or large horse-power, the whole may 
be reduced to fine shavings with great rapidity — two tons 
per hour. This renders the stalks much more digestible, 
because the cutter reduces the fibre to a finer condition 
than the animal will masticate ; and then when this fine 
chaff" is taken into the rumen and softened, and then raised 
with the grain and remasticated, it gets thoroughly mashed 
and fitted for the reception of the manifolds and the final 
action of the fourth or true stomach. When cut into fine 
shavings, the hard rind of the stalk is broken into shreds, 
and is eaten without any irritation of the mouth. When 
cut into pieces one and a half to two inches long, remain- 
ing there in a solid chunk with sharp edges, they some- 
times irritate the mouth. We have recommended, where 
large numbers of cattle are fed, and a steam-engine is em- 
ployed for cutting, to run the cut chaff into a steam-box, 
and, turning on the steam, soften it to a pulp. We have 
no hesitation in saying that, thus fed, corn will lay on as 
many pounds to the bushel as if it were husked, shelled, 
ground and cooked; for the steaming more thoroughly dis- 
integrates the grain than any possible grinding can do. 



308 TEEDING ANIMALS. 

But it is not necessary to success in this method of feed- 
ing the corn crop to steam it; for cutting, in the manner 
mentioned, secures the remastication of every part, and 
the cutter reduces the cob to so thin a scale that it can be 
easily masticated. 

This system of feeding the corn crop will enable the 
farmer to shock the crop while the stalks are still green; 
and thus the fodder will have thrice the value of stalks 
standing on the hill with the life dried out of them. As 
soon as the corn is sufficiently matured as not to spoil 
in the shock, it should be cut and bound in small 
shocks, so as to be easily handled when brought to 
barn for cutting and feeding. If the corn is cut by hand, 
it would be most convenient to bind in moderate-sized 
bundles, and set these in shocks. These bundles would be 
run through the cutter whole, and thus save time in han- 
dling. The earlier the corn is cut, the more valuable will 
be the fodder ; and corn does not require to be so far ad- 
vanced in ripening as farmers usually suppose before it can 
be safely put in shock. When the kernel is in the dough 
state,' it may safely be shocked if the weather is favor- 
able. We have had corn ripen j)roperly in shock when cut 
in the milk, the butts being placed on moist ground. This 
is a matter of the greatest importance; for the fodder, 
when cut at the proper time, has a value nearly equal to 
common hay; and after the corn has stood to fully ripen 
on the hill the stalks have little value as food. When cut 
early, the stalks make sufficient fodder to be given to fat- 
tening cattle with the grain growing on the same ground, 
and the cost of feeding is, therefore, much reduced. 

Mode of Cuttin"g and Handling. 

The straw-cutter should be arranged with a carrier, 
which will deliver the chaff and corn in a feeding-car upon 
the feeding-floor in the stable below. Over the feeding-car 



CUTTING A]S"D HANDLING CORN. 309 

should be a pipe, from which water may be drawn upon a 
Bieve and sprinkled over the chaff, to moisten it. This 
sprinkling is done as fast as the cut corn is delivered in the 
car. The water is regulated by the quantity of corn deliv' 
ered. Then, by allowing it to remain in mass for 12 to 18 
hours, it will become warmed up by incipient fermentation, 
somewhat softened and rendered more easy of digestion. 
This is the best way to handle it when not ste-amed. The 
author has used it with this slight fermentation, as well as 
with steaming ; and, although the latter is preferable 
where every convenience is had for it, yet moistening and 
fermenting is a skillful way of handling it, a-iad will give 
good returns. An acre of corn will produce about 50 per 
cent, more beef in this way than by allowing the cattle to 
harvest it for themselves, even when the weather is com- 
fortable, and 100 per cent, more in the coldest weather. 

It will be seen that the labor of harvesting and feeding 
is no more, on this plan, than of harvesting and feeding a 
crop of fodder corn. The fact that it is a large crop of 
grain does not add at all to the labor. Most good feeders 
in the Eastern States, as a matter of economy, run the 
fodder corn through a straw-cutter, except when fed green. 
There can be no doubt that the corn crop is much better 
utilized on this plan than when husked and shelled and 
the corn fed whole, for it will not then be remasticated, 
and much of it will pass the cattle without digestion. 

This mode of feeding the corn crop can be carried on 
upon a large or small scale — the larger the scale, the less 
labor proportionally. Where one hundred head of cattle 
are fed, it will cost less in proportion than for twenty head, 
because the power and the cutter will be larger, and the 
work done more rapidly. With an engine and a large cut- 
ter, with a proper carrier and sprinkler for moistening it, 
one man can prepare the ration, feed and care for one hun- 
dred head of cattle. In this case the manual labor of cut- 



310 FEEDING ANTMALS. 

ting the corn into chaff, depositing it in the feeding-car, 
and moistening it, consists merely in feeding the corn into 
the straw-cutter — the carrier delivers it in the car, and the 
water-pipe moistens it, without any hand labor. It would 
require 3,000 to 3,500 lbs. of shock corn per day, and an 
active man could, in good weather, bring this in from the 
field, prej)are and feed it. The feeding-car would run on a 
track on the feeding-floor, and hold a day's feed. The cat- 
tle would stand on each side of the floor, and, as the car is 
moved along, the cattle are fed right and left. Where a 
large number of cattle are kept two feeding-cars are re- 
quired — one to feed from while the other is filling and 
fermenting. 

Improvement of the Corn Eation. 

We have Just seen how the whole corn crop may be fed 
together, saving stalks as well as grain, and with much less 
labor than is usually bestowed. But the stalks and grain, 
taken together, are too poor in albuminoids to make a com- 
plete ration alone. It is true that great numbers of West- 
ern cattle are fattened every year wholly upon corn ; but 
this ration is so easily improved that, where the crojD is 
handled in the manner described, this deficiency may be 
supplied with two or three pounds of linseed-cake or 
cotton-seed cake.^ Tliis cake (or better in form of meal) 
may be added to each corn ration when fed, and with this 
addition cattle would be m«,de to fatten most satisfactorily. 
As before explained, one of these oil-cakes is better than 
othe-r nitrogenous foods, because of the large percentage of 
oil, this overcoming the tendency to constipation from dry 
fodder and the large percentage of starch in corn. Yet 
four pounds of wheat-bran will answer a very good purpose 
when cake cannot be had. 



corn and beef. 311 

Beef to the Acre of Cork. 
It may be of interest to examine the probable result of 
feeding an acre of corn in this way. Farmers would be 
better prepared to understand their business if they were 
in the habit of determining the result per acre of all their 
crops. We have a small experiment of our own to give as 
to the pounds of beef produced per acre of corn cut and 
fed as described, without steaming, but merely slightly fer- 
mented, as mentioned. We were feeding ten steers, of 
1,175 lbs. average weight. The corn was shocked Septem- 
ber 10th, and we began feeding November 1st. The corn 
was estimated to yield 40 bushels per acre when properly 
dried. It was shocked when the ear was in the soft dough 
state and the stalks were green. At first the average ration 
was 40 lbs. per head, per day, of the corn in the shock, 
which was run through a straw-cutter with a 3-16 inch cut. 
Two pounds of linseed-oil meal was given to each steer per 
day, mixed with the corn ration. The corn was cut so fine 
that, after a slight fermentation, it was eaten clean. Four 
acres were accurately measured, and lasted 70 days. The 
average weight of the steers at the end was 1,375 lbs., or a 
gain of 200 lbs. each. The oil-meal cost 2 cts. per pound, 
and the steers had gained in value $14 per head, or 7 cts. 
per pound gain. Now if we deduct the price of the oil- 
meal, it takes 40 lbs., at 7 cents, to pay it. This would 
leave as the product of the corn crop 160 lbs, per head, or 
1,600 lbs. for the 4 acres — 400 lbs. of beef per acre of corn, 
or 70 cents per bushel for the corn, not counting the stalks. 
With this mode of feeding, there is no doubt that good 
corn may be made to average 400 lbs. of beef per acre on 
cattle of 1,100 to 1,200 lbs. weight, and still more in feed- 
ing younger cattle. The food of support is greater in an 
animal of 1,100 lbs. than in one of 600 to 800 lbs. 



312 FEEDING ANIMALS. 

CoNDiMENTAL Foods. 

The true feeder, who, as is said of the poet, must " be 
born, not made," always studies the likes and dislikes of 
his animals. He knows that the pleasure of eating has 
much to do with the thrift of his cattle; so he not only 
takes into consideration the nutriment that a food con- 
tains, but whether the flavor is agreeable to the taste, and 
will be eaten with a relish. Mere flavoring materials that 
contain little or no nutriment often have a decided influ- 
ence upon the growth and thrift of animals; and it is 
based upon this fact that the compounders of condimental 
foods find a market for their cheap materials at such high 
prices as have left a fortune to some of them for profit. 
Our readers may, therefore, thank us for showing them 
how to manufacture their own condimental foods at the 
simple cost of the raw materials. Sir J. B. Lawes, of Koth- 
amstead, efiectually exposed the pretentions of Thorley in 
reference to the wonderful virtues of his '*' Condimental 
Food for Cattle," showing that it had no such value in fat- 
tening animals as the price for which it was sold should 
lead one to expect; that it was a mere appetizer, and should 
only be used as such. It was sold at $8 per 100 lbs., and 
had only a nutritive value slightly over that of corn-meal. 
As there are a good many of these mixtures sold in this 
country, it may be useful to give the analyses of two of 
the most celebrated of these foods sold in England. Dr. 
Cameron, of Dublin, made the following analyses, some 
years ago : 

Condimental Food— Analyses. 

Thovley's. Bradley's. 

Water 13.00 12.09 

Albumiuoids 14.02 10.36 

Oil... 6.08 5.80 

Sugar, gum mucilage 50.86 60.21 

Woodv fibre 5.46 5.33 

Ash.." 4.(38 6.22 

Total 100.00 100.00 



C02irDIMENTAL FOODS. 313 

It will be noted that neither of these foods is as nutri- 
tious as Imseed-cake ; but they compare favorably, except 
in an excess of albuminoids and sugar,' with corn-meal. 
This large proportion of sugar exiDlains an important point 
in condimental foods. It seems that these compounders 
had noted the fact, that animals are very fond of sweet 
foods. The author became aware of this many years ago, 
and employed sugar, in the form of cheap molasses, not 
only as an appetizer, but as an excellent fattening food. It 
is well known that a horse is very fond of his lum]^ of 
sugar; and cattle, pigs, and sheep are equally fond of it. 
Sugar is wholly carbonaceous; and although it is more 
easily digested than the carbo-hydrates of the grains and 
grasses, yet it can only be used properly with some other 
very nitrogenous food. Take the best quality of clover-hay, 
which has an excess of albuminoids, and a small quantity 
of molasses will give a remarkable relish to the clover for 
cattle ; so that they may be rapidly fattened upon merely 
clover and molasses. We have had steers gain, in Septem- 
ber, three pounds live-weight per day upon 28 lbs. of early- 
cut and well-cured clover-hay sweetened with three jnnts, 
or four pounds, of sorghum molasses. Nine pounds of 
cut clover-hay were moistened with six quarts of water, in 
which had been dissolved one pint of molasses. This feed 
was given three times daily. This experiment was tried on 
six steers for forty days. Let us see how this ration com- 
pares with the German standard for cattle weighing 1,100 
lbs. Twenty-eight pounds of best clover-hay has, of dry 
organic substance, 21.42 lbs., and 4 lbs. of sorgham 2.80 
lbs. — making 24.22 lbs.; of albuminoids, the clover has 
2.99 lbs., molasses none; of carbo-hydrates, clover has 10.52 
lbs , the molasses 2.80 lbs. — making 13.32 lbs.; of fat, clover 
has .58 lbs,, and molasses none. It will be seen that the 
carbo-hydrates are deficient nearly 3 lbs., the other two 
elements not quite so much; but this ration, although 
14 



314 FEEDIN"G ANIMALS. 

apparently deficient "in quantity, is very nearly right in 
proportion, and proved, practically, a full ration for these 
steers. It is quite certain, in this case, that the 4 lbs. of 
sorghum molasses added much to the gain. We had pre- 
viously tried a like experiment upon a work horse that had 
become thin, and added 100 lbs. to his weight, in 35 days, 
with the three pints of molasses upon cloverrhay, but the 
clover-hay was given ad lihitum, and not weighed. The 
author has often used one pound of molasses simply to 
flavor the food, and found it to pay excellently well, by in- 
ducing a better appetite for food, so that more has been 
eaten. In England, the locust bean (so called, being made 
from the fruit pods of the locust tree raised in Southern 
Europe), which contains a large amount of sugar has been 
used; but I am not aware that it has ever been imported 
here. 

A very good condimental food may be made by combin- 
ing the following materials : 



Articles. Lbs. 

Linsecl oil-cake 25 

Flax-seed 10 

Molasses 20 

Corn-meal 40 

G-round turmeric root IX 

Ginger 0% 

Carraway-seed j^ 



Articles. Lbs. 

Gentian OJ^ 

Cream of tartar 0/4 

Sulphur 1 

Common salt 1 

Coriander-seed 0% 

Total 100 



The flax-seed may be boiled in 10 gallons of water until 
it forms a thin mucilage; then stir in the turmeric, ginger, 
carraway, gentian, cream of tartar, sulphur, common salt 
and coriander ; no-W add the molasses, then the corn-meal 
and ground oil-cake, stirring it well together. If it is de- 
signed to keep it long, it may be dried in a hot-air chamber 
or oven, at about steam heat, after which it will require 
grinding for convenient use ; but the materials may all be 
ground together in their natural state if manufactured for 
commercial purposes. There may be a great variety of 
formulas; but this is as good as any of the condimental 
foods, and is not expensive. 



gaeden-teuck faems. 315 

Feedikg on Small Faems. 

There are many small farms in the Eastern and Middle 
States, near cities and villages, on which grain and garden 
truck are raised almost constantly; and tlie question often 
arises, " How shall this system be continued without a 
ruinous outlay for commercial fertilizers, or the absolute 
exhaustion of the soil ? " Those farmers of this descrip- 
tion who have been fortunate enough to obtain manure 
cheaply from the city or town have continued to raise good 
crops for a long series of years, whilst others, not so suc- 
cessful in obtaining manure, have seen the soil constantly 
growing less and less in production, year by year, and yet 
appear never to have discovered the great resource they 
may have at their own doors for constant renewal of the 
fertility of their lands. There is usually a large amount of 
straw and various kinds of coarse fodder produced upon 
such farms, which might furnish that part of the ration 
for feeding cattle; and by purchasing freely of grain, bran, 
oil-cake, corn-starch feed, malt sprouts, cotton-seed meal, 
or any .of the various kinds of cattle-foods, manure, in 
large quantity, may be made upon each of these farms, the 
growth in beef paying the cost of purchased food, leaving 
the fertilizer free. 

By having well-arranged stables, each of these garden 
farmers may keep one or two head of cattle to each acre ; 
and, under this management, everything raised — not even 
excepting weeds — will be saved, and turned into active ma- 
nure for his crops. With warm stables, a large part of the 
feeding may be done in fall and winter, when the crops do 
not require attention, and the labor will be little felt. 

Young and thrifty steers are always to be found at the 
cattle-markets in cities; and, when these are fattened, a 
market for the beef will usually be found at the village or 
market town. 



316 FEEDIlirG ANIMALS. 

When feeding is conducted for tlie fertilizer, as in this 
case, there will be no motive for scanty feeding; as the 
richer tJie food, the rich-er and more valuable the manure. 
These farms are particularly favored for this kind oi feed- 
ing, as the cattle and the feeding stiiiTs are all near jit 
hand. We know of a few instances where a steady profit 
is made upon the animals fed, besides all the manure, which 
is indispensable for the land. In these instances there is 
good judgment used in the purchase of the cattle and the 
feeding stuffs, and then the animals are pushed till well 
fattened, and find a ready sale, at good figures, in the local- 
market. 

Dairy cows may be kept instead of steers, if the situation 
is favorable for the sale of milk, which always pays better 
than other branches of dairying. Dairying interferes more 
with other work than does steer-feeding, and the manure 
from milch cows is not so rich as that from fattening cat- 
tle ; but the milk produced from a cow often pays more 
money than the greatest growth in flesh. Milk, at 4 cents 
per quart, will give a daily income through the year, from 
an extra cow, of 40 cents, which cannot be made from the 
growth of flesh and fat. The dairyman, under such cir- 
cumstances, can afford to give the best and richest food, so 
that the manure will be excellent. Butter-making may also 
be conducted on these small city or village suburb farms, 
and then the refuse milk may be fed to pigs, with grain ; 
and the manure, in that case, will be worth quite as much 
as that from fattening cattle. One of these system? of 
feeding may be practiced, with great profit, on all these 
small farms, and will, in the future, be their great resource 
for keeping up fertility. 



PEEDIIfG DAIRY CATTLE. 317 



CHAPTER IX. 

DAIRY CATTLE. 

" First catch your hare," was the preliminary advice for 
cooking it. So, likewise, first select your dairy cattle 
before you feed them. We do not propose to determine 
which is the best breed for the dairy, but merely to mention 
a few general principles that apply in the selection of dairy 
cows of any breed. 

The dairy cow is almost an artificial creature. In a state 
of nature the dam gave only milk enough to furnish food 
for the calf during a short period, when her milk secretions 
ceased. The capacious udder of the improved cow; the 
long period of lactation ; her wedge shape, caused by the 
broadening of her hips, to make room for her great labo- 
ratory to work up raw materials into milk, the stomachs ; 
her greater rotundity and fullness of frame — all these 
represent a great many generations of special breeding and 
feeding to these ends. The bull that represents the 
longest line of great milk-producing ancestors, on both 
sides, is the most prepotent for the purposes of the dairy- 
man. 

Those breeds that have been longest bred and used 
specially as milk producers, must contain the largest pro- 
portion of profitable milkers; and selections from these 
will be the best breeders of dairy stock. 

The common dairy stock in this country has such a 
mixture of blood, that they cannot be depended on as 
breeders, especially when bred to males of the same class. 



318 FEEDINa ANIMALS. 

Every dairyman who desires a herd of great excellence 
must use females only of the common stock, and breed 
these to the best thoroughbred male of the strain of blood 
he thinks best adapted to his specialty in dairying. These 
females should be selected with great care. 

SELECTiifG Dairy Cows. 

Look first to the great characteristics of a dairy cow — a 
large stomach, indicated by broad hips, broad and deep 
loin and sides, a broad or double chine — these indicate a 
large digestive apparatus, which is the first essential re- 
quisite to the manufacture of milk. Secondly, a good 
constitution, depending largely upon the lungs and heart, 
which should be well developed, and this is easily deter- 
mined by examination; but the vigor and tone of the 
constitution is indicated by the lustre of the hair and 
brightness of the eye and horns, and the whole make-up. 
Thirdly, having determined her capacity for digesting 
surplus food for making milk, look carefully to the re- 
ceptacle for the milk — the udder — and the veins leading 
to it. The cow may assimilate a large amount of food 
which goes mostly to lay on flesh and fat ; but if she has a 
long, broad, and deep udder, with large milk veins, it is 
safe to conclude that her large capacity for digestion and 
assimilation are active in filling this receptacle. In fact 
the udder is the first point to look at in a cursory examina- 
tion of a cow, for Nature is not apt to create in vain. If 
it reaches to the back line of the thighs, well up behind, 
reaches well forward, is broad and moderately deep, with 
teats well apart, and skin soft and elastic, it may be inferred 
that Nature has provided means for filling it. 

If the udder be a small round cylinder, hanging down 
in the front of the thighs, like a six-quart pail, the cow 
cannot be a profitable milker, whatever digestive apparatus 
she may have. 



SELECTING DAIET COWS. 319 

A yellow skin and a yellow ear (inside) is almost univer- 
sally regarded as present in a cow that gives rich yellow 
milk ; but after you find the indications mentioned abo-ve, 
you may admire as many other points as you please ; such 
as a first-class escutcheon, a long, slim tail, a beautifully- 
turned dishing face, a drooping, waxy horn, a small, straight, 
slim leg, or any other fancy points ; but do not look for 
these till you have found the essentials. 

Again : When you have found all these essentials, if 
the cow is five years old and does not yield 5,000 pounds of 
milk per year, she is not worth possessing as a milker or 
breeder. Let good appearances be coupled with perform- 
ance ; yet, if the cow be five years old, and actually yields 
6,000 or more pounds of good milk, you may safely buy 
her, without regard to her points. She must digest the food 
to make it, and her machinery is so far above criticism. 

But the length of her period of lactation must not be 
forgotten ; this is a quality inherited as much as her 
capacity for quantity. A cow that, well fed, will not milk 
for ten months, is not to be desired. A moderate and 
nearly uniform quantity continuing for ten months, will 
produce a larger aggregate yield than heavy milking for a 
short period. Twenty-three pounds per day for ten months 
will give 7,000 lbs. ; while a short period of seven months 
would require 33 lbs. per day. Nearly all great annual 
yielders of milk have long periods. This is a matter of so 
much consideration, that a cow having a short period of 
lactation should be rejected as a breeder, as this would be 
inherited by her offspring. 

Still another important consideration, even in the selec- 
tion of a common-blood cow, is her pedigree. If you can 
find her descent from a large-milking dam, grandam, and 
great-grandam, this will greatly increase the probability of 
your success in breeding her to a thoroughbl'ed bull from 
deep-milking ancestors. 



320 FEEDIN'G ANIMALS. 

Now a few cows selected with all these requisites will lay 
the foundation for breeding such a herd of dairy cows as 
will be a source of perpetual delight and profit to the 
owner. On the other hand, it is simple folly to rear a calf 
for the dairy from a poor milker. It is bad enough to 
keej) an unprofitable cow for a season, but it is deliberately 
throwing away good food to breed from such a cow, with 
the proof before you that the heifer will never pay for her 
keep. Of course no males will be kept of such crosses for 
breeding purposes. 

A thoroughbred male must always be used to insure any 
proper measure of success. A large dairyman may replace 
his herd with cows of his own breeding on this plan, by hav- 
ing one-third to one-half of his cows selected for breeders. 
But the calves from these selected cows, sired by a thorough- 
bred bull, must also be selected after they have grown to 
sufficient age to determine their qualifications. This jDrocess 
of selection should be also rigidly enforced in thorough- 
bred breeding. Had this been done rigorously with all 
our pure dairy breeds, it would now be simply necessary to 
purchase a Jersey, an Ayrshire, or a Hoi stein, to possess a 
good cow of either particular breed ; but they have been 
bred s© indiscriminately, and all their progeny kept till a 
thorough weeding out is necessary. 

Let no dairyman be content to purchase the first male 
or female he may find of either of these breeds, but in all 
cases learn the actual performance of the animal and its 
ancestors. A poor Jersey or Ayrshire is no better than 
any other poor cow ; and if it be a male, he is likely to do 
great harm, by distributing liis worthless blood, and thus 
bringing disappointment to the purchaser and discourage- 
ment to the extension of the breed. The male in a system 
of improved breeding is chosen for his prepotency ; and it 
is not suflBcient that his blood is of the breed desired, but 
he must bring with him the blood of a long line of 



SIZE OF DAIRY COWS. 321 

ancestors, proved, by actual performance, to possess the 
qualities desired. The only pedigree of real value repre- 
sents performance in the ancestors of the animal. It is 
necessary to make this point strongly, because breeding, 
for the last twenty years, has had little reference to any- 
thing save purity of blood and sundry fancy points. We 
have entered upon a realistic period, which demands real 
merit first, leaving fancy where it belongs — in the rear. 
Witness the tests of butter cows for the last few years ; 
the great prices brought by those having the great butter 
yielders in their line of ancestors. 

Size of Dairy Cows. 

The question of size in dairy cows has a bearing upon 
the economy of feeding, but the exact law practically 
governing the exjienditure of food proportioned to the size 
of the animal in production has not been fully settled ; 
yet experiments have been made which throw some light 
upon it. 

Natural principles applied to it Avould appear to favor 
large cows, as they have less external surface for the 
radiation of animal heat than smaller ones, in proportion 
to weight. It is well settled that two animals weighing 
2,4()0 pounds will consume less food of support than three 
of the same aggregate weight. It may be stated as a 
general law, that the food of support decreases pro|3or- 
tionally with the increase of size in animals. We find an 
article in a paper illustrating this point, without credit to 
the author ; but we think it was written by Prof. Arnold. 
He sets out by stating this difference in the food of support 
according to size, but doubts its application, practically, to 
the production of milk ; and he illustrates it by reference 
to three dairies: the first grade Short-horns, the second 
natives, and the third Jerseys and their grades. He says : 

" The dairy of Mr. I. Boies, of Illinois [about 100 cows], is 



322 FEEDING AmMALS. 

a good one for setting the use of large cows in its best light. 
In the first place, Mr. Boies is widely known as one of the 
best of dairy managers. He buys and milks a great many 
cows, and his experience and close observation have made 
him one of the best judges of milking qualities. He never 
selects a poor cow. He buys large cows, and, feeding with 
a very liberal hand, his herd is heavy. Eeviewed in June, 
the year following their yield of 3143^ lbs. of butter per 
cow, they were estimated to have an average live weight of 
1,200 lbs. per head. They were in high order, and many 
of them could have been sent to the shambles at a good 
price. It would be very interesting to compare the pro- 
ducts of his dairy with those of another having an equal 
number of Jerseys, or other small cows, which were treated 
as well as he treats his. But no such herd can be named. 
Good managers of less herds of smaller-sized cows are 
often met with. Mr. Oliver Bronsou, of Chautauqua 
County, New York, has a herd of twenty natives which, 
viewed in May last, were estimated to weigh 150 lbs. per 
head less than the herd of Mr. Boies. They are kindly 
cared for, and produced last year 302 lbs. of butter per 
cow. Mr. 0. C. Blodgett, of the same county as Mr. 
Bronson, has a herd of twenty-five Jerseys and their grades, 
all small cows. Viewed also in May, they were estimated 
to have an average live weight of 780 lbs. Though very 
skillfully managed and fed, their yield last year was 234^ 
lbs. of butter to a cow — a diminutive yield, compared with 
those of Messrs. Boies and Bronson, of 80 lbs. per cow less 
than one, and 67M less than the other. Judged by the 
usual standard of product per cow, this dairy would by 
most dairymen be at once set down as the least desirable 
and the least profitable of the three. But, in fact, the 
reverse is true. Mr. Blodgett's dairy is the most profitable 
in the list, for he gets the most butter in proportion to the 
food consumed [that is the question at issue]. As 234 is 



FOOD AKD SIZE OF DAIRY COWS. 323 

just three-tenths of 780, each of his cows (omitting the 
odd K lb. of butter per cow) produces annually three-tenths 
of her liye weight in butter." 

The conclusion here is based upon an assumption con- 
tradicting his statement, that the food of support decreases 
in proportion as the size increases. Had the food actually 
consumed by these herds been noted, the results, compared, 
would have been of great value. But, although we have 
no carefully-tried experiments in this country to determine 
the comparative economy in milk production of large and 
small cows, and the opinions of those who keep the dif- 
ferent breeds is in accordance with the size kept, yet this 
question has received practical attention in Europe, where, 
by numerous experiments, the relation of food to product, 
in dairy cows of diflPerent weights, has been very well 
settled, so far as to quantity of milk ; but as to quantity of 
butter, we are not aware of any experiments settling it. 

Baron Ockel, of Frankenfelde, experimented with Ayr- 
shires and Holland cows, with the following result : The 
average weight of the Ayrshires was 806 lbs., and of the 
Hollanders 1,016 lbs. The Ayrshires ate 3.3 lbs. of hay 
for each 100 lbs. live weight, while the Holland cows con- 
sumed 2.8 lbs. Of the feed consumed, l-60tli of their live 
weight only was required as food of support to the Hol- 
landers, while l-50th was required as food of support to 
the Ayrshires. He then tested the effect of size on the 
same breed. He took four Holland cows, the two heaviest 
of which weighed 2,112 lbs., on June 14th, and the lighter 
two 1,537 lbs. He then placed the two heaviest in one 
stall, and the two lightest in another, and fed them sep- 
arately for 16 days, the feed being weighed as fed to each 
lot, and, if not all eaten, what remained was weighed and 
deducted. Their live weight remained unchanged during 
the time — with the following result : 



324 



FEEDING ANIMALS. 





* ,A 


>> 




c ,„■ 




s^ 




X3 


£-0 • 






■a 






Cows. 


St? 


2 

H 


^6 


v 
3 ftS 




o 


S 


a 


5 




lbs. 


qts. 


qts. 


lbs. 


Heavy cows 


4,921 


340 


7.4 


14.6 


Light cows 


3,859 


240 


5.5 


16.0 







This experiment shows that the same law holds with 
difierent weights of the same breed, as in different weights 
of diffeijent breeds ; and that it is the natural effect of size 
upon the food of support, and that this is probably in 
proportion to the area of outside surface of the animal. 

In 1852, a series of experiments were made at 11 different 
localities in the kingdom of Saxouy, by order of the Eoyal 
Agricultural Society, during a period of five years, the 
cows selected being of the best " scrubs," Allgauers, Olden- 
burgers, and Hollanders, the last two being really of the 
same breed, the difference relating merely to the manage- 
ment in different localities. The results, per annum, for 
five years, were reported as follows : 

With Common Feed and Care. 

Scrub cows averaged. 1,437 quarts per annum. 

Allgauers " 3,334 " " 

Oldenburgers ''- 2,220 

Hollanders " 2,062 

With the Best of Feed and Care. 

Scrub cows averaged 2,365 quarts per annum. 

Allgauers " 3,000 

Oldenburgers " 3,712 " " 

Hollanders " 3,232 

The scrub cows were much lighter than the others. 
One dairy of Hollanders, of 190 cows, averaged 4,076 
quarts per cow. These latter experiments seem to have 
been undertaken principally to determine the breed of 
cows producing the largest product, and these were found 



FOOD AND SIZE OF DAIRY COWS. 325 

to be the largest cows ; but it does not appear that an 
account was kept of the amount of food given to each kind. 
In regard to size, Caspari made 18 experiments in feeding 
milch cows, with a view of ascertaining how many pounds 
of hay, or its equivalent, it required to make J 00 lbs. of 
milk. He found, in Prussia, 100 lbs. of hay, fed to Hol- 
land cows, made 253^ quarts of milk ; and the same fed to 
the Allgauers, made 30.98 quarts of milk. At 11 dairies 
in Saxony 100 lbs. of hay fed produced, in — 

Oldenburgers 25.40 quarts. 

Hollanders 26.10 

Allgauers 30.00 " 

Scui-bs 23.65 " 

Villeroy's experiments resulted as follows : 

Hollanders 28.92 quarts per 100 lbs. hay. 

Yorkshires 27.45 " 

Devons 19.13 " 

Herefords 15.97 " 

Jerseys 26.33 

Allgauers 27.61 

These experiments all seem to tell the same story. The 
Jerseys are the smallest, and peculiarly a milking breed ; 
but they produced less, per a given quantity of food, than 
either of the larger milking breeds. We should put the 
Hollanders against the Jerseys as a fair test, because both 
have been bred for a long period expressly as milk yielders, 
and they both have a high reputation in that specialty. 

We will now give the German mode of feeding in Dr. 
Khode's 

Milk Eation", at Eldena, 

in Pomerania. This is one of the most celebrated agricul- 
tural schools in Prussia. He details those experiments in 
his chapter " On the Breeds of Cattle in the Kingdom of 
Holland." We do not propose to go into the characteristics 
of the breeds he describes, but merely to consider the 
ration, and the result upon large and small cows. 



326 



FEEDING ANIMALS. 



Cows. 






Small Cows. 

3 Ayrshire cows 

4 Toiulern cows 

Lakge Cows 

3 Rreitenburg cows 

22 liolhind cows 



qts. 
5,386 
9,337 



8,594 
78,100 





>> 


^ 


s 


o 


^ 




aj 


t- *- 


p. 




c 










.£ a 


<0 


>^ 


p^ 


qts. 


qts. 


1,795 


5.00 


2,334 


G.:iO 


2,8G5 


8. CO 


3,550 


9.85 



■4,'I85 
5,835 



7,101 
8,875 



The highest yield of the Ayrshires .was 5,582 lbs., and 
the lowest 3,537 lbs. 

The highest yield of the Tonderu cows was 7,012 lbs., 
and the lowest 4,G40 lbs. 

The highest yield of the Breitenburg cows was 7,365 lbs., 
and the lowest 7,050 lbs. 

The highest yield of the Holland cows was 15,355 lbs., 
and the lowest 6,315 lbs. 

The average winter ration was composed of 10 lbs. of 
straw of summer grain, 2K lbs. of oat and wheat chaff, 
25 lbs. of turnips, 10 lbs. of hay, 8 lbs. of brewers' grains, 
wet, and 3 lbs. of rye bran. This contained of digestible 
nutriment 3.28 lbs. of albuminoids, and 14.3 lbs. of carbo- 
hydrates, having a nutritive ratio of 1:4.2 — equal in nutri- 
tive value to 42 Ibsr of hay. 

The average ration in summer is 135 lbs. of green clover, 
and 8 lbs. of dry -Kay. The hay is to modify the suc- 
culence of the clover. Dr. Ehode says this ration is equal 
to 45 lbs. of hay, and contains of digestible albuminoids 5.7 
lbs., and of carbo-hydrates 14.91 lbs. — nutritive ratio 1:2,5. 

He says the small cows did not eat so much as the large 
Holland cows, though the food of each Avas not weighed ; 
yet when the same amount of food was placed in two racks, 
it was found that 9 large cows ate as much as 10 small 



FOOD AND SIZE OF DAIRY COWS, 327 

COWS per day, and he thus counted them as 9 to 10, in pro- 
portion of food; or the small cows consumed 45 lbs. of 
hay, or its equivalent, while the large consume 50 lbs. 
According to the specified yield, they severally require of 
food for the production of one quart of milk : 

Holland cows, little more than 5.00 lbs., hay value. 

Breitenburg cows, little more than 6.25 " " 

Tondern cows, little more than 7.00 " " 

Ayrshire cows, little more than 9.00 " " 

The Holland cows weigh from 1,200 to 1,400 lbs. 

The Breitenburg cows weigh from 1,100 " 1,300 " 

The Tondern cows weigh from 900 " 1,000 " 

The Ayrshire cows weigh from 800 " 900 " 

By this it appears that the large cows were the more 
economical milk producers. Here Dr. Eliode, at the head 
of the Eldeua Agricultural School, found a X'retty wide 
difference between the Hollanders and Ayrshires ; and we 
are quite inclined to think, if the food of each separate 
class of animals had been accurately kept through the 
year, the difference could not have been so large as he 
makes the production from the same food — 80 per cent. — 
in favor of the Holland cows. Dr. Ehode remarks on this: 

" It cannot be questioned, from these results, to which 
race belongs the advantage. They value none in Eldena 
for milk but the Holland cows." 

It is to be regretted that at so celebrated a school of 
agriculture the most careful record should not be kept of 
the exact difference in the amount of food required for 
cows of the different breeds and sizes, and also the com- 
parative butter as well as milk yield of the cows, so that a 
just conclusion might be arrived at as to the productive 
value of the two breeds, fed under precisely the same 
circumstances. Still the experiments have an important 
bearing in the evidence as to the relative cost of feeding 
large and small animals. 

So far, then, as the evidence is before us, we must con- 
clude that size — all other things being equal — is favoral^le 



328 FEEDING ANIMALS. 

to tlie economical yielding of milk — that it actually takes 
less food to produce 100 lbs. of milk ^itli a cow of equal 
merit, weighing 1,000 lbs., tluin one weighing 800 lbs. In 
accordance with these experiments, then, we may infer that 
Mr Israel Boies^ dairy produced milk at a less cost of food 
than Mr. Blodgett's ; but we cannot pronounce on the 
question of the cost of butter, for that has not been as yet 
tested; at least we have seen no well-authenticated experi- 
ments reported which settle it. Mr. Blodgett's Jerseys 
may possibly yield milk so much richer than Mr. Boies' 
large grades as to make up the diflFerence in quantity; but 
the probabilities are, even here, against the small cows, as 
the difference m quantity of milk must have been very 
large. The argument of the writer of the article com- 
paring the three dairies mentioned, is to show the probable 
waste of the food of support in keeping cows of 1,200 lbs., 
as the 400 lbs. above the weight of the Jerseys he supposes 
to be mere surplusage, and maintained gratuitously. Those 
European experiments given, utterly overthrow this sup- 
position, and show that the heavier cows require less food 
m proportion to production of milk. "We may, therefore, 
assure the dairyman who keeps large cows, of good milking 
quality, that he is not throwing away food upon size. 

Yet Ave do not think the large cows are necessarily the 
most economical for all purposes. The Jerseys and Ayr- 
shires are peculiarly adapted to large districts of this 
country — hilly regions, rough pastures, but bearing grasses 
of the finest quality for dairy products. We could pro- 
fitably use twenty times as many as we nov/ have of Jerseys 
and Ayrshires. Besides, the Jerseys yield a highly-colored 
butter, of such fine quality and great popularity as to.bring 
the highest price in market. 

It will have been noted in this discussion of the best 
cows to feed for dairy purposes, that cows of poor appetite 
and small eaters are not wanted — that cows which have 



FEEDING DAIRY CATTLE. 329 

the beet appetites and the largest digestive power are to be 
sought for — the best possible machines for turning food 
into milk. 

Feeding Dairy Cattle. 

We have treated of the selection of dairy cows, and the 
effect of size upon the economy of milk production. We 
are now prepared to discuss the effect of food and care 
upon dairy stock. And here the author must be pardoned 
for quoting a few paragraphs from a paper which he read 
before the American Dairymen's Association, in January, 
1878. If dairymen could only be impressed with the fact, 
and firmly believe that whatsoever is produced in beef, 
milk or wool, must come from the food which the animal 
eats, what a great and salutary change would at once take 
place all over the country ! 

There is not a movement made by any creature that 
must not be compensated for by the food. How directly 
this bears upon the profits of the dairyman ! If cows are 
allowed to go two miles, or even one mile, to pasture, or 
anyone is allowed to misuse them, it must be paid for in 
food. If cows are driven hurriedly, or chased by dogs, the 
quality of their milk is changed: it becomes poor — defi- 
cient in oil — the nervous excitement uses it up. How evi- 
dent, then, is it, that all exercise must be paid for in food, 
and that the dairyman should most judiciously regulate 
this exercise ! 

Again : there is not one degree of heat that is not pro- 
duced by the food. The slightest change affects the food. 
If cows are exposed to a temperature of 15 degrees below 
zero, food enough must be consumed by the animal to 
overcome the effects of this intense cold. 

We want to emphasize this great law of equivalence. 
There must be something paid for everything. Something 
cannot be produced from nothing. 



330 FEEDING AN-IMALS. 

Then, again, the cow must be supported first. She must 
be sustained before she can produce any milk whatever. 
Some dairymen appear to think that a cow may be kept 
poor through the winter, and produce the same milk in the 
spring as if she were in good condition ; but this is a fatal 
mistake. It will take nearly all a poor cow can eat to sup- 
ply the wants of her own system : and what this supply of 
the living wants of the system is, few understand. It 
requires two-thirds of a full ration to keep a cow in fair 
condition — her food of support — before there is any milk 
production. This has been carefully tested by many exper- 
imenters. We have proved it in a number of instances. 
It IS a sound general statement that two-thirds of the food 
goes to kee-p the animal alive. Up to that point all is 
expenditure and no return. 

A growing animal that weighs four, five or six hundred 
pounds in the fall, and only weighs the same in the spring, 
is more than unprofitable; the food consumed to keep it 
over is utterly thrown away ; it is as effectually lost as wood 
that has been burned in a stove. All that is got from the 
cow IS its droppings, as there remains the ash from the wood. 
It will thus be seen that all the profit, if there is any, 
must come from the last third of food given the cows ; 
and, if that be withheld, only loss is the fesult. 

In regard to dairy profits, the cow is simply a machine 
for producing milk — precisely as much as a steam-engine is 
a machine for producing power and motion ; if the steam- 
boiler is supplied ^ith just as much fuel as is required to 
keep the water warm there is no power; the boiler must 
have sufficient fuel to produce extra heat before any work 
can be accomplished. 

It makes a considerable difierence what kind of a cow is 
kept to produce milk, just as it does the kind of boiler and 
engine used to produce motion and work ; and, therefore, 
it is important in purchasing and breeding cows for dairy 



SPECIAL FEEDING FOR MILK. 331 

purposes to look to the capacity of the cow to turn the 
food into milk. But, without generous and judicious feed- 
ing, breed is of little consequence. If a cow only produces 
3,000 pounds of milk per year, she' is kept at a loss. A 
good cow, well fed, will yield 6,000 pounds of good milk ; 
and the cost of jiroducing this will be only one-eighth 
more than the 3,000 pounds from the poor cow. Without 
selection of cows, and judicious and abundant feeding, 
dairymen cannot receive anything worthy of their labor. 

Special Feeding for Milk. 

Since certain very partial experiments were made in 
Clermany to test the effect of special feeding upon the com- 
position of milk, dairymen have been told to seeh quality 
of milk in the breed and not in ilie food. We are always, 
ready to admit and emphasize the value of breed ; but, as 
we have seen, the best breed of cows must have judicious 
feeding to render their qualities of any. material value. 
Had food nothing to do in fixing the excellent qualities for 
which each breed is so much prized ? As far back as the 
history of the cow reaches, the belief of the learned and 
unlearned has been, that the quality may be improved, and 
the flow of milk increased, by special feeding. Virgil, in 
his '•' Georgics," makes special mention of articles of food 
peculiarly adapted to cause a flow of rich milk. Darwin 
mentions many instances where food has been tlie cause of 
variation in animals, while selection and breeding after- 
wards perpetuated that variation. There is no room to 
doubt, on philosophical principles, that variation from a 
fixed type of animal .has been caused by food and climate. 
Suppose the renowned Bakewell, who made such a trans- 
formation in long-horn cattle and long-wooled sheep, had 
practiced on this doctrine, that a selection of the breed and 
not the food would lead to the highest excelle.nce, does 
anybody, after due consideration, believe that if he had 



332 FEEDING ANIMALS. 

merely studied the external characteristics of animals, and 
used the greatest skill in coupling those having a proper 
combination of points, without seeking any improvement 
in feeding, he would now be regarded as the greatest im- 
prover of cattle and sheep ? Perhaps some one may answer 
that breeding and feeding for beef is different in principle 
from feeding for milk ; but, since milk is made from the 
blood at the same degree of elaboration, as fits it for assim- 
ilation into the tissues, and that what goes to lay on fat or 
build up flesh in the stall-fed animal goes to the udder in 
the milch cow, whatever food will do in increasing the apt- 
ness ol an animal to fatten, and in laying on and flavoring 
flesh, it will do, directed by intelligence, in increasing the 
secretion and improving the quality of milk. In philoso- 
phy and fact, the quality and quantity of milk is as per- 
lectly controlled by quality and quantity of food as is the 
quality and weight of flesh laid upon a stall-fed animal. 
When, by skill m feeding, you have developed a particular 
part or secretion, you may often succeed in fixing this in 
the progeny by breeding. We may, therefore, properly 
credit leedmg with the beginning of all development. 
Food must first create the improvement, and then breeding 
and feeding must continue it. This statement has no 
reference to the improvement made on scrub animals by 
crossing thoroughbreds on them. Here the improved 
blood raises the standard of the inferior blood ; but tlie 
progeny is only an improvement on the inferior animal. 
When we speak, -of improvement by feeding, we mean an 
improvement on the best blood of the race experimented 
on- Example : Suppose we take a Short-horn, Ayrshire, 
Jersey or other breed, the improvement must be over any 
of its known ancestors. All these improvements require 
much time; and, therefore, an improved milking strain of 
blood IS ol great value, and its value is in proportion to its 
fixed character. But these fixed characteristics cannot 



SPECIAL FEEDIKG. 333 

stand long against an entire change of the food and sur- 
roundings which produced them. 

That you can take an ordinary cow, of good constitution 
and form, and greatly improve both the quality and quan- 
tity of milk, we have demonstrated in several instances. 
Let us take some examples : First, a heifer with her third 
calf, at four years old, that had in her first and second 
years given a very moderate quantity of milk ; and, on a 
test during the fourth week of her second lactation, made 
5 pounds of butter from 150 pounds of milk, and during 
the fourth week of her third season made 5^i pounds of 
butter from 160 pounds of milk. At the close of this sec- 
ond test we began the experiment of developing her. She 
was a cow of rather spare habit. It was the latter part of 
January, and her ordinary food had been timothy and 
clover hay, with one peck of carrots daily. 

The additional food began with one pint of oil-meal and 
three quarts of bran per day, which was gradually increased 
during the first month to six quarts of bran ; the second 
month, to one quart of oil-meal, six quarts of bran and 
two quarts of corn-meal; and this feed was continued till 
grass came, when one pint of oil-meal and four quarts of 
bran were continued through the summer. A test at the 
end of the third month gave a yield per week of 6 pounds 
of butter from 170 pounds of milk. A test in July gave 
6K pounds of butter in seven days, from 1G5 pounds of 
milk. During the whole of this season her yield of milk 
was much more uniform, though there was but a small 
increase in quantity or improvement in quality. Before 
dropping her fourth calf, at five years old, she was fed 
specially for six weeks with one quart of oil-meal and four 
quarts of bran and one quart of corn-meal per day. This 
had a remarkable effect in developing her udder. Had to 
milk her a few days before coming in. Fed her, after 
coming in, as the year before. Tested her milk during 14 



334 ■ FEEDING ANIMALS. 

days, commencing the fifteenth day after calving. Result : 
20 pounds of butter from 462 pounds of milk. This sec- 
ond season was an astonishing improvement on t-lie last, 
producing about 60 per cent, more throughout, with only 
ten per cent, additional food. This cow was kept till 18 
years old, and she proved a first-class cow for quantity and 
quality, the quality being improved more than the quantity. 

That we might determine whether the result in this first 
case might have been largely due to the natural develop- 
ment of a heifer, a six-year-old cow, that had been pur- 
chased the May previously, and found to be a very ordinary 
cow, yielding only 25 pounds of milk per day, in the flush, 
and commenced feeding her ten weeks before coming m. 
The ration of extra feed at first was small, as with the first 
cow, and increased, week by Aveek, until a week before she 
dropped her calf, when the extra feed was discontinued, to 
prevent a feverish state of the system at that critical period. 

Her udder increased much beyond its previous dimen- 
sions; and, on testing for quantity during the third week, 
she gave an average of SO pounds per day, yielding 8 pounds 
of butter. This cow was fed like the former through the 
season, and showed an increase of milk much beyond that 
cow the first season. This was attributed to the extra 
feeding for over two months before coming in. She was 
fed in like manner two months before dropping her next 
calf; and her udder was so largely increased in size that 
she required milking ten days before calving. On a test, 
during the third "vveek, she gave 280 pounds of milk, and 
made 12 pounds of butter. This was an increase of one- 
third in quantity of milk, and one-half of butter. This 
cow was kept till 20 years old, and she gave 6,278 pounds 
of milk during her nineteenth year. Both of these, after 
development, became profitable cows. 

A circumstance worthy of mention is, that a heifer calf 
was raised from each of these cows before development, and 



SPECIAL FEEDING. 335 

both proved to be very ordinary milkers ; but heifer calves 
were also raised from each of them after development that 
proved to be excellent milkers. It would seem that a, 
strong milking habit acquired by each of these cows be- 
came transmissible to the progeny. They also illustrate 
another point of some importance — the effect of high feed- 
ing upon the health and future usefulness of the cow, upon 
her constitution and cajDacity to yield milk for a series of 
years. 

It has often been asserted that high feeding shortens the 
life and usefulness of the cow. These two cows each gave 
m'ilk in very profitable quantities for fourteen years after 
high feeding commenced. On this point we can also refer 
to the experiments reported by Dr. Rhode, mentioned on 
page 177, in which some 35 cows increased a yearly average 
of 2,930 quarts to 4,000 quarts, in seven years, with the 
best of health. What is called high feeding is often very 
injudicious feeding, consisting of highly concentrated and 
heating food, given without due admixture of coarse or 
bulky food. But these cases cannot be cited against full 
feeding directed by a proper knowledge of the wants of the 
animal system. 

The German" Experiments. 

The effect of special feeding upon the quantity of milk 
has been so often proved in large and small experiments 
that there is no further doubt about it. But the German 
experiments at first aj^peared to show that the food did not 
change the proportion of the chemical constituents of milk; 
that when cows were fed a ration of meadow hay, and in 
addition a highly nitrogenous food, or again one highly 
carbonaceous, for periods of 14 days, the chemical constitu- 
ents of the milk remained essentially the same. Bat Dr. 
Kiihn, in further trials, extending through a period of 30 
days, found the element of oil to be slightly increased on 



336 FEEDIlfG ASriMALS. 

the use of a higlily carbonaceous food; and thus it was 
proved that special feeding might change the proportion of 
the constituents of milk. In the experiment we have 
given, in developing the two cows by special feeding, an 
increase in the element of butter, in the same cow, of abo-ut 
18 per cent, is shown after long feeding ; proving that the 
German experiments were too short to determine the effect 
of special feeding. These experiments seem to have been 
conducted on the theory that the constitution of the cow 
is exceedingly flexible, if 14 to 30 days could very materi- 
ally change the proportion of the secretions. In all these 
experiments the ration of meadow hay furnished all the 
elements of milk in the normal proportions, and it could 
not reasonably be expected that additional food, rich in 
either albuminoids or carbo-hydrates, could change the pro- 
portion of the elements in milk, except in a long course 
of feeding. A steady course of special feediog will work a 
gradual but sure change. In confirmation of this, let us 
present a large experiment, carried on for several years, and 
giving most conclusive proof of the increase of oil, or but- 
ter, m the milk. The Hon. Zadock Pratt, of Greene 
County, N. Y., reports to the New York State Agricultural 
Society, the yield of his 50 cows for five consecutive years, 
beginning with 1857 and including 1861. The first year it 
required 39.2 pounds of milk for 1 pound of butter; the 
second, 33.3 pounds; the third, 29 pounds; the fourth, 23.3 
pounds ; the fifth, 21 pounds. The amount of butter per 
cow per year increased in the same proportion. This herd 
was made up of so-called " native cows," and consisted sub- 
stantially of the same animals, there being only the ordi- 
nary changes in such a herd. In 1862 he reports 64 cows, 
many of them heifers, yet requiring only 19. 7 pounds of milk 
for 1 pound of butter; his average of butter per cow reach- 
ing 223 pounds. The next year, with 82 cows, he reached 
an average of 224 pounds of butter per cow. He was con- 



SPECIAL FEEDING. 337 

stantly improving his yield of butter by special feeding ; 
and, contrary to the German experiments, this increase in 
butter was not from an increased yield of milk, but from 
an improved quality. His improved quality resulted from 
feeding through the winter, and till the tenth of May (when 
grass became good), a ration of corn, oats and buckwheat, 
ground together; and from May tenth grass alone till the 
latter part of August, when fodder, corn and pumpkins 
were given in addition to grass during the fall and early 
winter. His constant improvement of the quality of the 
milk, year by year, was just what might, philosophically, 
have been expected. And as the yield of milk, per cow, 
was no greater at the end of seven years than at the begin- 
ning (5,094 pounds in 1857 and 5,017 pounds in 1863), this 
must be regarded as a demonstration that this special feed- 
ing affected, radically, the quality of the milk. 

We have illustrated this point of special feeding at con- 
siderable length, because many intelligent feeders have 
been discouraged from any attempt at improvement in the 
quality of the milk of common cows by supposing that 
science had proved its futility. The common understand- 
ing of all goo-d feeders, that cows may be improved, both 
in quantity and quality, by intelligent feeding to that end, 
has not been weakened by any just interpretation of any 
experiments, scientific or otherwise. 

Having considered the selection and size of dairy cows, 
the effect of temperature and exercise, special feeding, and 
the German experiments on the effect of feeding upon the 
quality of milk, we are now ready to consider practical 
modes of feeding for milk. 

The dairy industry is so extensive in this country — in- 
volving one of the largest agricultural products — that the 
most careful consideration of it is required. 
15 



338 feedikg animals. 

The Cow as a Food Peoduoer. 

The large eating capacity of a good dairy cow is proverb- 
ial ; which will be easily understood if we make a cursory 
examination of her production. Suppose a cow weigh- 
ing 900 lbs. yields 6,000 lbs. of milk in nine or ten months. 
This milk would contain 780 lbs. of dry matter, counting it 
87 per cent, water. Here she yields 6% times her own 
weight in milk, and the dry substance in the milk is twice 
that in her own body. The cow is the most remarkable 
food producer among animals. She produces twice as 
much food in her milk as does the beef animal of the same 
weight in its gain in flesh, during the same time. It seems 
that this remarkable economy of production in the cow 
was observed and discussed by Payen, in 1843, whilst asso- 
ciated with Dumas and Boussingault, in ^'Eesearches on 
the Fattening of Cattle and the Formation of Milk." 
These observations were published in Les Comptes Jiendtis, 
Feb. 13, 1843. After giving experiments he says: 

" The cow which has consumed 10 kilogrammes (22 lbs.) 
of hay above the ration of support, yields 10 litres (22.6 
lbs.) of milk, which represents one kilogramme 400 
grammes of solid matter ; while the ox has increased only 
one kilogramme with the same food, and of this the water 
absorbed into the tissues of the animal ought certainly to 
be counted as the half. * * * ^ milch cow, then, 
draws to the profit of man, from the same pasture, a quan- 
tity of matter for the food of man which may be more 
than double that extracted from it by a fattening ox. 
* * * There exists the most perfect analogy between 
the production of milk and the fattening of animals, as 
the rearers of stock had anticipated. But, nevertheless, 
the fattening ox turns to use less of the fatty matter, or 
azotized substances, than the milch cow. And this last 
merits, in an economical point of view, the preference. 



THE COW AS A FOOD PRODUCEE. 339 

when the question is to get from pasture the greatest 
amount of product useful to man." 

This gives us a ckar explanation of the reason for the 
large consumption of food by the best milch cows. As 
the milk is made from the extra food consumed by the cow 
oyer what is necessary to supply the waste of her own sys- 
tem, we see it is quite necessary that she should be a good 
eater and digester. 

Composition of the 6,000 lbs. of Milk. 

Dry Substance. Lbs. 

Casein and albumen 234 

Pat, or butter 228 

Milk-sugar (whey) 378 . 4 

Salts, or ash 39.6 

Total dry substance 7S0.0 

Water 5,220 

This statement of the elements of the dry substance in 
the 6,000 lbs. of milk yielded by a cow in her milking 
period, shows that the food should be rich in albuminoids 
and fat, or the elements out of which fat is elaborated, in 
the animal system. 

How Fat is Peoduced. 

Animal chemists and physiologists are not agreed upon 
this question of the formation of fa,t in the animal body. 
Some quite elaborate experiments made by Voit, Petten- 
kqfer, Henneberg, Wolff, and some other German experi- 
menters, led them to believe that the albuminoid matter 
eaten as food was a large source of the fat laid up in the 
animal system, and that this and the oil in the food eaten 
constituted the sources from which all the fat in animals 
is produced. Almost all kinds of fodder contains fat, but 
not in quantity sufficient to account for all the fat laid up 
by the fattening animal or the fat in the milk of the cow. 
The urea constantly extracted from the blood by the kid- 
neys comes from the albuminoid matter. The extraction 



340 FEEDIN"G AliriMALS. 

of urea leaves a kind of fatty matter, as the residue of the 
albuminoids, and this is used to keep up animal heat, and 
the sur2)lus goes to lay on fat or produce oil in milk. 
These chemists were inclined to doubt whether carbo' 
hydrates, such as starchy sugar, gum, and cellulose, were 
ever used in the animal system to produce fat, as Leibig 
had held many years before ; but their experiments Avere 
far from being conclusive, as they had omitted to experi- 
ment upon the pig, Lawes and Gilbert carried out a thor- 
ough series of experiments upon pigs, that fully corrobo- 
rated Liebig's views, and proved quite decisively that 
carbo-hydrates were transformed into fat. The pigs were 
fed upon barley-meal, and the fat and albuminoid matter 
in the barley-meal were wholly insufficient to account for 
the fat formed in the bodies. It has been stated that 
these German chemists have recently acknowledged the 
correctness of the experiments of Lawes and Gilbert, and 
that carbo-hydrates must be considered as a source of 
fat in animal bodies. In this they acknowledge the far- 
sightedness of their great predecessor, Leibig, whose mind 
seemed to grasp great truths intuitively, and who was 
much less liable to error than those who draw general 
conclusions from limited practical experiments. 

The practical common sense of feeders has taught them 
that foods having a large proportion of starch, such as 
corn-meal, barley-meal, rye-meal, and fine middlings from 
wheat, are particularly adapted to produce fat, or milk 
rich in butter. Antl these impressions, derived from gen- 
eral practice, have withstood all the doubts of scientific 
investigators based upon inadequate experiments. 

Variety of Food for Milk. 

We have seen that milk is a very complex fluid, contain- 
ing all the component elements of the animal body. The 
food, therefore, to produce it, should be rich in all these 



VAKIETT OF POOD FOR MILK. 341 

elements. The error too frequently committed by dairy- 
men IS, in supplying a ration from one kind of fodder, in- 
stead of giving a variety. If the hay be cut from an old 
meadow it will have a variety of grasses, and the wants of 
the system will be fully supplied. There are very few old 
meadows that contain less than twelve to fifteen species 
of grass. Old pastures often contain three to four times 
that number of grasses. It is from this fact that butter 
has a higher flavor when produced from old pastures. 
When milk is produced wholly from red clover, one of our 
best artificial grasses, its flavor is quite inferior to that pro- 
duced from several varieties. This has been so often ob- 
served as not to admit of a doubt. Each species of grass 
or grain has its own peculiar aroina and flavor, and the 
greater the number of varieties the finer the flavor of the 
milk, butter, or other product. Every dairyman should 
therefore study the nature of the foods he uses, that he 
may produce the best result. The unfavorable opinion ex- 
pressed by some dairymen of fodder-corn, fed green, has 
been from not understanding that this is only a partial 
food, and not adapted to be used as a complete ration. It 
is very deficient in albuminoids, which are found in so 
large proportion in milk. Green corn is excellent as part 
of a ration for milk cows, but it should always be given 
with more nitrogenous food, such as clover, oats and peas, 
millet, malt sprouts, oil-cake, bran or middlings. There 
must always be a variety of food in the milk, ration, and 
with a little study of his resources the dairyman may 
always give such variety. 

E]S"GLisH Practice. 

Let us examine the system of feeding adopted with 
success by Prof. Horsfall, of England, some twenty years 
ago, and carried out for many years. "We may not be able 
to use the exact foods in his ration, but American dairy- 



342 FEEDING ANIMALS. 

men may use those of the same cliemical elements. He 
mentions, by way of preface, that it requires 20 lbs. of good 
meadow hay, besides the food of support, to produce 16 
quarts (40 lbs., English measure) of milk- jDer day. But 
you cannot induce a cow to consume this amount of hay 
above the ration for her maintenance, and he had therefore 
to seek his extra food in more concentrated substances, 
such as are rich in albumen, oil, and phosphoric acid; and 
he selected these with reference to economy of cost. His 
stables in winter were kept at a temperature of 60°. 

In describing his ration, he says: 

" My food for milch cows, after having undergone various 
modifications, has for two seasons consisted of rape cake, 
5 lbs.; and bran, 2 lbs.; for each cow, mixed with a suffi- 
cient quantity of bean-straw, oat-straw, and shells of oats, 
in equal proportions, to supply them three times a day 
with all they will eat. The whole of the materials are 
moistened and blended together, and after being well 
steamed are given to cows, in a warm state. The cows 
are also allowed from 1 lb. to 2 lbs. of bean-meal per day, 
according to the quantity of milk given by each. This 
bean-meal is given dry, mixed with the steamed food as 
given to each cow. When this is eaten up, green food 
is given, consisting of cabbages, from October to Decem- 
ber ; kohl-rabi, till February ; and mangolds till grass- 
time. To preserve a nice flavor, I limit the supply of green 
food to 30 or 35 lbs. per day to each ; after each feed four 
lbs. of meadow ha5^ or 12 lbs. per day is given to each 
cow; they are allowed all they will drink of water twice 
per day. 

" My experience of the benefits of steaming is such, that 
if I were deprived of it I aould not continue to feed with 
satisfaction. As I mix bean-straw, bran, and malt-combs, 
as flavoring materials, with oat-straw and rape-cake, the 
effect of steaming is to volatilize the essential oils, in which 



PKOF. HOKSFALL's RATION. 343 

the flavor resides, and diflfuse them through the mess. 
The odor arising from it resembles that observed from tlie 
process of malting. It imparts a relish which induces the 
cow to eat it greedily; besides which, I think, it renders the 
food more easy of digestion and assimilation. I use this 
process with advantage for fattening when I am short of 
roots, adding one-half pound of linseed oil. With this 
ration, cooked, I have been able to make an average gain 
of 14 lbs, per week on heifers and dry cows, from March to 
May— a result I could not accomplish from the same 
materials uncooked. 

" To one leading feature of my practice I attach the 
greatest importance — the maintenmice of the condition of 
my coios giving a large yield of milk. I am enabled, by the 
addition of bean-meal in proportion to the greater yield 
of milk, to avert the loss of condition in those giving from 
16 to 18 quarts pei day; whilst on those giving a less 
yield, and m health, I invariably effect an improvement. 
Albuminous matter is the most essential element in the 
food of the milcli cow, and any deficiency in the supply of 
this will be attended with loss of condition and a conse- 
quent deterioration in the quality of her milk." 

The ensilage system lately introduced will, when put in 
practice, quite supercede the necessity of steaming, and 
give cows nearly all the advantages of pasture. It will 
also fully take the place of roots in the English system. 

Fatten Cows in" Milk. 

There are some features in Mr. Horsfall's practice worthy 
of careful consideration of American dairymen. He was 
ID the habit ol buying strippers, or cows some six months 
liom calving, putting these into his herd and making a 
good profit on them. This would generally be considered 
a very unwise thing for a dairyman to do. But this fact 
shows that Mr. Horsfall had such complete control of the 



344 



FEEDING ANIMALS. 



condition of his cows that he could take these strippers 
(which he was careful to have under six years old), and so 
increase their yield of milk as to produce a fair profit upon 
this alone; and also so increase the weight and value 
of the carcass in six to ten months as to sell them 50 per 
cent, above the purchase price. A system that could pro- 
duce milk profitably while fattening the cow, must have 
some merits worthy of adoption. He gives the key to his 
" leading feature" of practice, as "the maintenance of the 
condition of the cow under a large yield of milk." This 
he does by giving a portion of food rich in albuminoids. 
Milk being a highly albuminous product, it draws strongly 
upon these elements in food. If we take his example of 
feeding six cows 191 days — examine his ration, weight of 
his cows at beginning and end of experiment, product 
of milk, etc. — it will give the best insight into his 
practice. 



No. 01" Cow. 


o 

> 
"3 

o 

d 
Si 


2 

C5 


s> 
.a 
o 
o 
O 

S . 
1- 


•s 


Average yield 
per day. 


Total yield. 


i 

5 


1 

8 


July 28 
Aug. 25 
July 28 
Sept. 8 
Sept. 8 
Aug. 25 


lbs. 

41 
41 
41 


lbs. 
1,064 
1,120 

952 
1,176 
1,176 
1,036 


lbs. 

1,148 
1,260 
1,120 
1,204 
1,232 
1,064 


lbs. 

25 J^ 
41 


days lbs 

203-5,202 
189—7.749 


lbs. 
84 
140 


4 

6 


SS}i 1 21 7- -8,354 
38i<J 1 175- -6.725 


168 
38 


7 

11 


38K 

34>ir 


175-5.833 
189—6,652 


56 
28 


Average of all. . 


-' 


41>i 


1,087K 


l.niJo' 1 351 


191-6,752 


84 



VALUE OF COW MANUKE. 345 

Food Supply to Six Cows During 191 Days, and its Composition. 









d 




o 
<2 














N 


'3 


o 


d 


o 

















■73 


p< 




■^iJ 


a 


si 










(2 


Si 


o 
O 


o 








O 




S3 
< 












lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


Meadow hay . . 


56 


10,696 


117.76 


$84.90 


9,420 


990 


4,257 


287 


2,933 


953 


Rupe cake . . . 


30 


5,740 


28.80 


73.67 


5,456 


1,803 


2,177 


611 


494 


171 


Malt combs... 


9 


1,723 


24.20 


18.46 


1,000 


411 


791 


51 


320 


88 


Bran . ...... 


9 


1,722 


28.86 


22.20 


1,500 


246 


800 


96 


258 


100 


Bean -meal 


9 


1,722 


41.48 


31.90 


1,500 


464 


774 


34 


176 


53 


Roots and cab- 






















bages 


204 


39,032 


2.22 


38.88 


5,740 


863 


3,074 


115 


1,448 


541 


Oat straw , 


50 


9,566 


7.77 


33.08 


8,407 


287 


3,066 


100 


4,526 


428 


Bean straw . . . 


la 


2,296 


7.77 


8.00 


1,9G4 


376 


725 


51 


594 


217 


Total 


379 


72,496 




$311.09 


35,647 


5,439 


15,664 


1,345 


15,664 


2,551 



Here the cost of the food was 1311.09, or 27 cts. per day 
for each cow — a pretty large price for keejoing — but the 
milk (16,000 quarts), at two pence (3.7 cts.) per quart, 
amounted to 1592, leaving the handsome margin of $281, 
or $46.83 per cow. We may consider this a pretty high 
price for milk, but it is only equal to $1.44 per 100 lbs. — a 
price dairymen often reached at cheese factories with high 

prices. 

Value of Cow Manure. 

But one important consideration of profit which an 
English farmer never forgets, but which an American 
farmer often leaves out of his estimate of profit, is the 
manure. Mr. Horsfall sent to the laboratory of Prof. Way 
samples of the manure from these six cows, while the 
experiment was going on, for analysis. According to his 
analysis of several samples, these cows produced, during 
191 days, the following amounts : 

Pounds. Cts. Value. 

Nitrogen 414.. @20 $ 83.80 

Phosphoric acid 393 13 47.16 

Potash 585 8 46.80 



Total value, at commercial prices. $176.76 



346 PEEDIKOr ANIMALS. 

This IS equal to $29.49 per cow, aud the estimate of 
value is that made for commercial fertilizers in our own 
markets. The experiment was conducted some twenty 
years ago, and Mr. Horsfall then figured the value at 
117.28 j)er cow. We have figured it on the basis of prices 
laid down by Prof. S. W. Johnson, of the Connecticut 
Experiment Station. It will be well for our farmers to 
look after the value of the home-made fertilizer; and as 
the experiment was carried out with care, we give it as 
forming a basis of calculation of manurial value when 
cows are full-fed, so as to gain in weight. Had they been 
scantily fed, the manure would have been of much less 
value. Here was abundance of food for respiration, or the 
production of animal heat, to supply the natural waste 
of the animal body, to produce an average of 35 lbs., of 
milk per day, and, besides, to increase the weight of the 
cow 84 lbs. in 27>^ weeks. These six cows were fresh in 
milk, to show the eifect of full feeding with full produc- 
tion; for it is much easier to add to the weight of the cow 
after she has been in milk six months than while in flush 
of production. This case will show clearly how he could 
buy strippers and greatly increase their yield of milk, 
while he added about 8 to 10 lbs. to their weight per week. 
As we have strongly illustrated in previous pages that there 
can be no production until after the food of support, and 
that the highest profit is only reached by the liighest con- 
sumption of food, this practice of Prof. Horsfall is a 
valuable addition to evidence under that head. 

Food of PRODiTcTioisr. 

As the author's great object in writing this book is to 
give practical instruction that will assist the feeder, in any 
specialty, to increase his profits, let us, before leaving Mr. 
Horsfall's experiments, show how these illustrate the pro- 
portion of the food of production to that of support. This 
is the most important point of all to be understood by the 



FOOD OF PRODUCTION. 347 

feeder; that is, loliat part of a full ration is really used for 
production or profit? We greatly need accurate and 
thorough experiments to determine this to an approximate 
fraction. There are many cases that throw light upon it. 
The German experimenters have undertaken to lay down 
tlie rule that 2 per cent, of the live weight of cattle of the 
dry substance of meadow hay is required as a daily ration 
of support, without gain. If this rule is taken, then, as 
Mr. Horsfall's six cows averaged 1,078 lbs., it would require 
21.74 lbs. of dry substance for the food of sujoport. The 
averaged amount of dry substance eaten by each cow per 
day was 31.11 lbs., as appears by the table given on a pre- 
vious page. This would be nearly .7 (seven-tenths) required 
as the food of support, and a little over .3 (three-tenths) as 
the food of production; and yet these cows yielded 35 lbs. 
of milk per day, besides increasing in weight. This must 
be considered as a remarkable result. We have usually 
estimated two-thirds of a full ration as required for the 
food of support, and this rather more than sustains that 
estimate. Let us see if we can find the elements in 3^ of 
the ration given by Mr. Ilorsfall to produce the 35 lbs. 
of milk, or 40,512 lbs. in 191 days, besides a gain in the 
weight of the cows of 500 lbs. Mr. H. supposed that this 
gam in Aveight was composed of 300 lbs. of fat and 200 lbs. 
of lean flesh. This would give only 46 lbs. of dry flesh, or 
fibrin, and about 270 lbs. of solid flit. The 40,512 lbs. of 
milk would contain the following substances: 

Casein (albuminoid) 1 ,815 lbs. 

Fat or butter , 1,276 " 

Milk sugar 1,933 " 

Mineral matter (ash) 243 " 

Water, 87 per cent 35,240 " 

40,512 

If we add the fat and fibrin of 500 lbs. gain, it will 
stand — 

Casein and fibrin 1,861 lbs. 

Fat and butter 1,446 " 

Milk sugar........ 1 1,932 " 



348 FEEDING ANIMALS. 

One-third oi the elements of the food is — 

Albuminoid (>^ of 5,439 lbs.) 1,813 lbs. 

Oil (>^ of 1,345 lbs.). 443 " 

Starch (>i of 15,(5641bs.).. 5,221 " 

Here it will be seen that the oil in the food is not sufli- 
cient to supply the fat for the butter, and the increase in 
weight, even if none is consumed in the maintenance of 
the cow, as there is only 1,345 lbs. of fat in the whole food, 
and there is required, besides, maintenance, 1,446 for the 
milk and the gain m weight. This only shows that the 
oil contained in food is not sufficient to supply the necessi- 
ties of the animal, and that it must be derived from the 
carbo-hydrates of the food. The surplus starch over main- 
tenance amounts to 5,221 lbs.; and if we deduct the milk 
sugar, 1,932 lbs., from this, we shall have left 3.289 lbs. 
If we deduct the 442 lbs. of fat over t>he maintenance 
ration from the 1,44-6 lbs. of fat m the butter, and gain 
of the cows, it leaves a deficiency of 1,004 lbs., and if we 
estimate 2% lbs. of starch as equal to 1 lb. of fat, it will take 
2,510 lbs. of starch to produce this deficiency of fat; but 
this -still leaves a surplus of 779 lbs. of starch, so that the 
production of fat can be accounted for out of one-third 
of the food. The casein m one-third of the food, 48 lbs., 
is short of supplying the casein m the milk and fibrin in 
the increase of weight in the cows. But it may well be 
that the nitrogen in two-thirds of the food is more than 
the waste of the system requires, and the deficiency is but 
a trifle (8 lbs.) to each cow. It thus appears, on a careful 
examination, that one-third of a full ration is quite sufii- 
cient to furnish the elements in a large yield of milk. This 
ought to be an interesting illustration to all dairymen. 
These cows were fed very liberally, and produced a little 
over 35 lbs. of milk per day for 191 days, besides gaining 
in weight, and still two-thirds of the food was used as the 
mere ration of support — one-third only devoted to pro- 



RATION^S FOR MILK. 349 

duction. This experiment was made by Prof. Horsfall, 
before the German experiments, determining the precise 
digestible constituents of food. Under the German 
formula, the amounts of albuminoids, carbo-hydrates, and 
oil represented as digestible would be considerably less, 
but the result would be the same. If dairymen once 
become fully convinced of the fact that tivo parts of all 
food goes to keep the cow alive, and only one part to pro- 
duction and profit, it must soon change the habit of 
scanty feeding, which means feeding without any hope of 
profit. 

American Ration's for Milk. 

Our dairymen have a great variety of foods out of which 
to make up the milk ration. It is true that we cannot get 
bean-meal or rape-cake, two of the foods used by Prof. 
Horsfall — the former of which had a peculiar significance 
in his system of feeding, as he regarded it as an important 
agent in keeping up the condition of the cow under a large 
flow of milk, by its large percentage of muscle-forming 
matter — but we can replace this with decorticated cotton- 
seed meal, which is still richer than bean-meal in albu- 
minoid matter, besides having six times as much oil ; or 
its place can be filled (in some parts of the country) with 
pea-meal, a food very similar, or it may be replaced with 
linseed oil-cake. We have not yet become accustomed to 
raising roots or cabbages for cattle feeding to any extent, 
and it may be doubted, whether, with our rates of labor, 
we can afibrd to raise turnips, beets, etc., instead of the 
grain crops. Many close figures make the raising of an 
acre of Indian corn, oats and peas, millet or barley, cheaper 
than the same quantity of nutriment from roots. The 
effect of roots in the promotion of the health of the cow, 
by their cooling and relaxing effect upon the stomach and 
bowels, is often dwelt upon, and with good reason; but 



10 lbs 


10 




4 




4 




3 




4 





350 FEEDING ANIMALS. 

the same eflfects may be produced by the use of 2 to 4 
lbs. of oil-cake lu combination with bran, or oats and corn 
ground together, and good hay. 

And the American dairyman now has, or may easily 
have, green succulent food, in the form of ensilage, to 
produce all this beneficial eflfect upon the stomach and 
digestive organs. 

A ration of equal nutritive power with Prof. Horsfall's 
can be found here, at less cost. Take the following : 

Cost. 

Clover-hay 4.0 cents. 

Straw 2.0 

Liuseed-oil cake 6.0 

Wheat bran 3.0 

Cotton-seed cake 2.5 

Corn-meal 3.0 

Average value of ration 20.5 cents. 

This ration is fully equal to Mr. Horsfall's, and yet costs 
only three-fourths as much, or the following : 

Cost. 

16 lbs. Meadow hay 6.4 cents. 

8 " Wheat bran 6.0 " 

2 " Linseed-meal 3.0 " 

6 " Corn-meal 5.0 " 

20.4 cents. 
Or this : 

Cost. 

18 lbs. Corn-fodder 4.5 cents. 

8 " Wheat bran 6.0 " 

4 " Cotton-seed meal 5.0 " 

4 " Corn-meal 3.0 " 

18.5 cents. 
Or this: 

Cost. 

15 lbs. Straw 3.0 cents. 

5 " Hay 2.0 

4 " Cotton-seed meal 5.0 

4 " Bran 3.0 

4 " Corn-meal 3.0 

3 " Malt sprouts , 2.0 

18.0 cents. 



RATION'S FOR MILK. 351 

The following would be easily obtained in man}' districts: 

Cost. 

10 lbs. Corn-fodder 2.0 cents. 

10 " Oat straw 2.0 " 

2 " Linseed-meal -. 3.0 " 

4 " Malt sprouts 2.0 " 

10 " Oat and corn-meal 10.0 " 

19.0 cents. 

Or this : 

Cost. 
60 lbs. Corn ensilage 7K cents. 

5 " Hay 2yi " 

2 " Llnseed-meal 2}4 " 

4 " Bran 3.6 " 

153^ cents. 

Or this : 

Cost. 

60 lbs. Clover ensilage 9.0 cents. 

4 " Corn-meal , 4.0 " 

13.0 cents. 

Or this: 

Cost. 

40 lbs. Corn ensilage 5.0 cents. 

40 " Clover " 6.0 " 

4 " Bran 3.0 " 

14.0 cents. 

Or this: 

Cost. 

40 lbs. Corn ensilage 5.0 cents. 

40 " Clover " 6.0 " 

40 " Millet " 6.0 " 

17.0 cents. 

Any of these rations would produce a large flow of milk 
and fully keejD up the condition of the cow, adding to her 
weight, if her live weight were not over 1,000 lbs. In 
many parts of the West the fifth ration would not cost 
more than ten cents per day. All these rations would also 
produce a good quality of butter in winter. The ensilage 
rations are the cheapest and would produce the largest 
flow of milk. 



353 feeding animals. 

Water for Milch Cows. 

All dairymen have observed that cows require a very 
large amount of water whilst in full milk. Prof. Horsfall 
made a comparison as to the water drunk by fattening 
cattle and milch cows of the same weight. He found that 
cows, when giving only 20 lbs. of milk per day, drank 40 
lbs. of water more than fattening cattle of the same weight, 
and he inferred from this that the cows gave off from the 
lungs and the pores of the skin over 20 lbs. of water per 
day more than fattening cattle of the same weight, since 
the water contained in the milk yielded was only about 
17K lbs., whilst the cow consumed 40 lbs. of extra water. 
On examining the manure from cows and fattening cattle, 
he found the amount of moisture the same in both cases. 
This is an interesting comparative experiment of the 
capacity for water drinkmg in the fattening animal and 
milch cow, whether we accept the theory of its use or not. 
The experiments have not been numerous and exact enough 
to determine the precise method of the expenditure of all 
the water ; but the large capacity and necessity for water 
in the milch cow is abundantly proved ; yet it may be 
worth while to mention the experiments of M. Daucel, 
reported to the French Academy of Sciences. His experi- 
ments were to determine the effect of quantity of water 
upon quantity and quality of milk. He says that by in- 
ducing cows to drink more water, the quantity of milk 
yielded by them can be increased m proportion up to many 
quarts per day, without perceptibly injuring its quality. 
The amount of milk, he states, is proportional to the 
quantity of water drunk. In experimenting upon cows 
fed in stall with dry fodder that gave only 9 to 12 quarts 
of milk per day, but when this dry food was moistened 
with from 18 to 23 quarts of water daily, their yield was 
then from 12 to 14 quarts of milk per day. Besides this 



WATEE FOR COWS. 353 

water taken with the food, the cows were allowed to drink 
the same as before, and their thirst was excited by adding 
a little salt to the fodder. The milk produced under this 
additional amount of water, on analysis, was pronounced 
of good quality ; and when tested for butter, was found 
satisfactory. A definite amount of water could not be 
fixed upon for each cow, since the appetite for drink diflFers 
widely in dilferent animals. He. found, by a series of 
observations, that the quantity of water habitually drunk 
by each cow during twenty-four hours was a criterion to 
judge of the quantity of milk that she would yield per day. 
And a cow that does not habitually drink as much as 27 
quarts of water daily must be a poor milker — giving only 
from 5/i to 7 quarts per day. But all the cows which con- 
sumed as much as 50 quarts of water daily were excellent 
milkers — giving from 18 to 23 quarts of milk daily. He 
gives a confident opinion that the quantity of water drunk 
by a cow is an important test of her value as a milker. 

These experiments, although they may not be quite 
sufBcient to induce confidence in M. Dancel's rule, yet it 
is certain that abundance of pure water is an absolute 
necessity to be provided by a successful dairyman. As 
water permeates every part of the system of the cow, its 
purity is of the first consideration. The quality of the 
water effects the health of the cow and the healthfulness 
of her milk. The impurities of stagnant water, in the 
form of organic germs, pass in a dormant state into the 
circulation of the blood, and thence into the secretions of 
milk ; and so powerful are these taints that it is not unfre- 
quently, at cheese factories, that the milk of one cow 
spoils a large vat of milk. So important is the quality of 
water for the cow, that it is none too severe a test to say 
that no water is fit for a milch cow that is not fit also for 
man to drink. Water should also be easy of access, both 
in winter and summer. In winter it should either be 



354 FEEDING ANIMALS. 

given them wliere they stand in the stall, or near by, so 
guarded that they may drink unmolested. 

In summer, if possible, water should be furnished in 
each pasture field. Cows should not be required to travel 
for it, because they will not do this on a hot day, unless 
very thirsty, and consequently they will not drink as much 
as a large yield of milk requires. When a farm affords a 
small, running stream, this should be conducted into every 
pasture field, if practicable, or every pasture should be 
connected with the stream. Or, where a spring is located 
upon an elevated part of the farm, the water from it should 
be carried in pipes to each pasture field, and caused to run 
into troughs which are always kept full. And, where 
water can be had by sinking wells, these should be fur- 
nished in each field, and the water pumped by wind or 
hand, so as to give the cows free access to water at all 
times. The cost of sinking these wells will often be repaid 
in a single season. Some dairymen are content to drive 
their cows to water, even in summer, only once per day. 
But such dairymen are destined to constant disappoint- 
ment in the profits of the dairy. 

To induce cows to drink often, some of the most suc- 
cessful dairymen, where water was pumped by hand into 
large troughs, put from K to 1 lb. per cow of oil-meal into 
the Avater-trough daily, with yi oz. of salt, and, stirring 
this well in the water, gives it a taste so much relished by 
the cows that they come often and sip a few quarts. By 
this means they were not only induced to drink much 
water, but the small amount of oil-meal assisted in in- 
creasing the yield of milk. Bran or middling may be used 
instead ; and we can assure every dairyman that the cows 
will return this liberality, with compound interest, in milk. 

We have, perhaps, elsewhere, sufficiently urged the im- 
portance of giving cows, in winter, water of moderate 
temperature. It is doing violence to the system of the 



WATER FOR COWS. 355 

COW to require her to drink large quantities of ice-cold 
water, and warm this in her stomach, producing a chill of 
the whole system. Such a method of watering must be 
unsuccessful in winter dairying, for this cold water retards 
digestion, when given in large quantity. It can only safely 
be given in one or two gallons at a time, and this would 
entail more expense than furnishing water at a temperature 
of 60 degrees. When cows are kept in a warm stable, and 
water can be brought to the stable from a spring, in pipes 
laid below frost, it may be run into a trough within reach 
of the cows, the surplus running off; or water may be 
furnished from a large reservoir, which will stand con- 
stantly at about 60 degrees. There are many ways in 
which water at moderate temperature may be furnished to 
cows in winter. 

Pasturing Dairy Cows. 

As this is the almost universal method of keeping dairy 
cows in summer, it becomes imj)ortant to discuss the most 
economical use of pasturage. Our readers will hardly be at 
a loss to know what we mean by economy. Economy re- 
quires the dairyman to get the largest production from 
each acre of his pasture, and this can be done by keeping 
only so many cows as his pastures will yield full rations to. 
Overstocking can result only in a lessened production. 

Variety of Grasses. 

In laying down pastures for dairy cows great care should 
be exercised in selecting the seed of a large number of 
grasses. This is important; first, because the land will 
produce a much larger yield of food from a large number 
of different grasses which completely occupy the soil, than 
from two or three that leave spaces unoccupied ; and, sec- 
ondly, and still more important, because animals require 
variety in their food, and especially the milch cow, that 



356 FEEDING ANIMALS. 

yields so abundant and complex a product in hei* milk. 
Milk contains all the elements of the living animal body in 
solution. The cow must, therefore, have a great variety, 
or complex food, out of which to elaborate this production. 
The dairyman cannot give this too much consideration. 
Many of our natural pastures contain from thirty to sixty 
species of grasses ; and when good cows are fed upon such 
pastures they are noted for the high quality of their milk 
and butter and cheese. Some of these wild grasses are 
classed as weeds by farmers when they come into their 
grain-fields, but they are highly relished by cattle in their 
succulent state. All of these wild grasses cannot be sown 
in pasture ; but they will frequently maintain a foothold 
with the cultivated grasses sown. It is well known that 
dairy products do not have that extra fine flavor when pro- 
duced on a pasture of timothy and clover alone; and, 
therefore, permanent pastures have been much advocated. 
But American farmers have not been so careful in selecting 
a variety of the cultivated grasses as they might have been. 
It is quite unusual for our dairy farmers to sow on pastures 
more than timothy {Phleum pratense) and red clover (Tri- 
foliuin pratense), occasionally adding June grass {Poa pra- 
tensis), or orchard grass {Dactylis glomerata), or white 
clover ( Trifolium repens), and in very exceptional cases all 
of them. If this list were generally used, it would greatly 
improve the pastures of the whole country ; but this mea- 
gre list should be enlarged by those who desire the great 
advantages of variety in the food of their cows, and are 
endeavoring to establish permanent pastures. It is true 
that red clover is usually a biennial, and will not last long, 
yet will be of much service in the beginning; but there is 
a perennial variety of red clover {Trifolium pratense pe- 
renne), and is found in almost every field of clover. That 
enthusiastic botanist, the late John Stanton Gould, says of 
the perennial : 



PASTtTRE GRASSES. 357 

"it may be distinguished, in general, at a glance, by its 
deeper, bluish-green color, the greater narrowness of the 
leaves, its more straggling, and the greater number, greater 
length and greater stiffness of its hairs. The root of this 
variety differs considerably from the biennial kind ; it is 
somewhat creejoiug and fibrous, whereas the biennial has an 
almost spindle-shaped root, with less fibres. The root is 
the best test in doubtful cases." 

Mr. Sinclair says this variety is found in great abundance 
in Lincolnshire, England, and that it flourishes better on 
clayey or peaty soils than the biennial. This perennial 
clover-seed cannot now be found in the market ; but a lit- 
tle attention of cultivators might soon furnish the seed, 
which would be a great gain to pastures. White clover is 
apt to come of itself on lands suited to it ; but it would be 
well to sow two or three pounds of the seed per acre. 

Eed-top, or herds grass {Agrostis vulgaris), should never 
be omitted where the land is moist, for it is a constant 
resource in pastures, as it grows equally throughout the 
season. It starts much sooner after cropping or cutting 
than timothy. It has thick, interlacing roots, and on wet 
lands it consolidates and toughens the sward, making such 
a firm matting that the feet of cattle do not easily break it. 
It has a high reputation among dairymen as producing a 
large amount of food and improving the flavor of the 
butter. 

Of the Poas, Kentucky olue-grass, or June-grass, stands 
at the head, and is too well known to require any descrip- 
tion or commendation; but wire grass, also called blue- 
grass {Poa compressa), which is found indigenous in many 
localities, is not so well understood, and requires some 
attention. This is in meadows often considered a nui- 
sance, because it holds its footing so strongly as to run out 
other grasses, and produces a small bulk of hay, but very 
heavy for its bulk. It is one of the most nutritious grasses 



358 FEEDIKG ANIMALS. 

m our whole list. It starts early in spring, and keeps green 
and succulent even after the seed is ripe. We think it very 
valuable as a pasture grass. Mr. Gould mentions that it 
did not form a close turf with him ; hut, with us, no grass 
forms a closer and tougher sod. It seems to be less affected 
by drouth or wet than many other grasses, and cows yield 
well when supplied with it in pasture or stall. It is so 
nutritious, when cut in season and ijroperly cured as hay, 
that cows will yield more milk upon it than any other hay 
we have tried ; and horses will work upon it as well as upon 
timothy, with a moderate feed of oats. It should have a 
place in all pastures where the natural grasses flourish. 

Sweet-scented vernal grass {Antlioxantlium odoratum) 
should not be forgotten in the list of pasture grasses for 
milch cows. It starts very early in spring and flowers in 
May. Its odor in blossom seems to be too strong for the 
taste of cattle when grown alone ; but, if mixed with other 
grasses in pasture or in hay, it is eaten with a relish, and is 
thought to give a fine flavor to milk. It does not produce 
a large weight of hay; but its odor and flavor and early 
growth in spring will warrant the use of about two pounds 
of seed to the acre. 

American dairy farmers have given quite too little atten- 
tion to keeping up the condition of tlieir pastures. Since 
the system of pasturing is almost universally followed, and 
the principal income from their dairy herds depends upon 
the supply and condition of food there furnished, the most 
imperative necessity demands that they study the means of 
improving them. Meadows are often considered worthy of 
attention and fertilization ; but pastures are not thought to 
need such attention, because cattle leave their droppings 
upon them; yet it must be remembered that the milch cow 
carries off from the pasture — never to return — the fertiliz- 
ing matter in her milk. The cow that yields 6,000 pounds 
of milk will carry off about 40 pounds of ammonia and 40 



FERTILIZING PASTURES. 359 

pounds of mineral matter. And it is easy to see that past- 
uring for a long series of years must gradually carry off the 
fertility of the soil. It is, therefore, necessary that there 
should be some provision for fertilizing permanent pastures 
used for the production of milk. 

Extra Food to Fertilize Pastures. 

"We think one of the best methods of keeping up the fer- 
tility of cow-pastures is to give the cows extra food during 
the pasturing season. This extra food will be repaid in 
extra milk every week, and so enrich the droppings as to 
fully compensate the pasture for all the grazing. This 
extra food can be given at such times as the condition of 
the pasture requires to give the cows full rations. Under 
this system a few more cows may be kept than the pasture 
is sufficient to furnish food for ; and thus the pasture will 
be cropped evenly over the whole field, and the grass all 
economized. While the grass furnishes abundance of food, 
it will not be necessary to add the ration. This extra food 
will come in to keep up a proper balance between the 
requirements of the cows and the condition of the pasture. 
This extra food may all be given in green clover, rye or 
other green food grown upon other fields, or fed to the 
cows in racks arranged in the pasture, or in stable, with the 
manure distributed over the pasture as a top-dressing ; or 
this extra food may be given in bran, corn-meal, linseed-oil 
meal, cotton-seed meal, barley sprouts, or other grain food. 
Some think it quite as economical to use one or more of 
these extra foods during the period before green corn, mil- 
let, peas and oats, etc., can be sufficiently matured for this 
purpose. They reason in this way : If the extra milk will 
fully pay for these foods, then it is better to use them, 
because this extra fertilizing matter is brought to the land, 
instead of being taken from it. Hundreds of experiments 
have shown that good cows will yield more than extra milk 



360 FEEDING AN"IMALS. 

enough to pay for these extra foods. Poor cows will not 
respond so )nuch to extra feeding, and will not, in fact, pay 
a profit under any system of feeding; they are not, there- 
fore, to be considered in this statement. 

Peas and oats, grown together, just when the peas are 
past the blossom, make an excellent extra food to make up 
for deficiency of pastures. 

Sweet corn — early and late yarieties — is most excellent 
food for the production of milk. The early varieties will 
come on the latter part of July, and give the cows a much- 
relished food. 

Stowell's evergreen is an excellent late variety which may 
be fed through September and October, and even later. 
This corn, to be fed green, should be cultivated in the same 
manner as when intended for market. Thick sowing is 
now quite abandoned by the most careful feeders. It 
should be planted in drills at least 33 inches apart, and cul- 
tivated two or more times, according to the condition of 
the soil. Sweet corn for such feeding is altogether to be 
preferred to common field corn, because of its remaining 
succulent so much longer, and also because it contains 
much more sugar and less starch. The sugar is more easily 
digested and assimilated, and makes better flavored milk. 
It is intended to allow the sweet corn to mature to nearly 
the same stage as when it is sent to market for culinary use. 
It is in the best condition for feeding after being run 
through a straw cutter ; but cows will eat it gi-eedily with- 
out cutting. Sw^et corn has a larger percentage of albu- 
minoids than common corn. This corn is also excellent to 
feed with late cuttings of clover, and with green peas and 
oats. If the dairyman will prepare the land, and put in 
one acre to each five cows in his herd with sweet corn, peas 
and oats, or millet, to be fed at the proper season, he will 
not only get the best yield from his cows, but keep up the 
fertility of his pastures. 



SEEDING HOKSES. 361 



CHAPTER X. 



HORSES. 



We will now give our attention to another gre?t class 
of farm stock, that which furnishes the motive power upon 
the farm and in the cities — horses. 

We must here also first discuss the wants of the young 
animal, as the proper management of the young is the first 
requisite to success. It is not within our province to 
discuss the question of breeding, but riiust take the 
animals as we find them and make the most of their capa- 
bilities. Much improvement of the constitution and vital 
forces of animals may be made by breeding; but as the 
finest pattern of boiler and engine are useless without fuel 
to make steam, so the finest animal forms are quite 
unprofitable without skillful feeding to develop and round 
out all their proportions. 

The horse is' kept for his muscle, and his food must 
be such as to develop the frame and muscular system. The 
feeder must have a clear idea of the purpose for which an 
animal is reared, and a comprehension of the office per- 
formed by the food. The food should present the precise 
elements in the proper proportion required for the uses of 
the animal. Animals kept for the production of flesh as 
food, can use a larger proportion of carbonaceous elements 
than those valuable only for muscle. Indian corn is the great 
crop of the West, and is the best type of fattening food, 
and has abundant use in the production of beef, mutton 
and pork. It may also properly form a part of the food 
16 



363 FEEDIifQ ANIMALS. 

of horses, and even for colts, but to the latter must be 
fed very sjoaringly. Bear in mind, it is chiefly the muscle 
and the finest quality of springy bone that requires 
development in the 

Colt. 

As we are now studying the proper development of the 
colt, let us see what Nature provides for its early growth. 
It will be seen from the analysis of the mare's milk, which 
we gave on page 138, that the casein, or muscle-forming 
element, is 3.40 per cent., butter 2.50, milk sugar 3.52, ash 
.53 per cent., and water 90.05 per cent. The mare's milk 
contains a larger percentage of water than cow's milk, but 
the relative proportion of the food elements is nearly the 
same. There is 9.95 per cent, of dry matter (food) in 
mare's milk, and of this the food of respiration and fat 
production (butter and milk sugar) amount to 6.02 per 
cent., so the casein amounts to 3.40 per cent., or more 
than one-third of the whole. This gives a little more 
than one of nitrogenous to two of carbonaceous elements. 
The colt thus receives food, in the mother's milk, in the 
proportion of one of nitrogenous (muscle-forming) to 1.92 
of carbonaceous elements. This tells us, in the strongest 
possible language, that the colt requires food rich in 
muscle-forming elements, and that it is a great mistake to 
use food rich in starch, such as corn, or even barley, for 
the young colt. 

For four to sis'months the colt takes its natural food — 
the milk of the dam. If this is in liberal supply, the colt 
will be sufliciently nourished with the addition of the grass 
it will get m pasture. But care must be taken to ascertain 
whether the dam gives suflicieut milk to produce a strong 
growth. Scanty nourishment at this period is often fatal 
to full development afterward. The whole system of the 
young animal is plastic in the hands of the skillful feeder. 



MILK EATIOlSr FOR COLT. 363 

Full rations of appropriate food will give it the habit of 
strong and rapid growth, which is easily continued after 
weaning; but, on the other hand, deficient nourishment 
will not only contract its present growth, but also contract 
its powers of digestion so as to incapacitate it for using 
sufficient food, to give full growth after weaning. The 
vigorous growth of a colt while young is too important 
to be neglected on any pretext, such as that " whip-cord 
muscle and solid bone must be grown very slowly that the 
fibres may become perfect," etc. There is a vast amount 
of such humbug afloat. Slow growth presupposes scanty 
food; does insufficient nutrition produce the most perfect 
development ? Taking a lesson from tree growth : How 
does the fibre of the slow-growing, large, forest hickory 
compare with that of the rapid, open field, second-growth 
hickory — the grain of the latter being twice or thrice the 
thickness of the former ? Will the expert, who wants an 
ax-helve or spokes for a trotting sulky, choose the slow- 
growing hickory in preference to the rapid second-growth? 
The same rule will hold between two colts, the one scantily 
'and the other abundantly fed. But as in this case of 
the rapidly-growing hickory, we wish it seasoned to give us 
the full force of its springy fibre; so likcAvise the rapidly- 
growing colt must have a time of seasoning to perfect, by 
temperate use and intelligent training, its wonderful power 
of muscular endurance. It seems this foolish prejudice 
against good feeding for colts has arisen from the fact that 
high feeding and fattening have been considered synony- 
mous. Such food as would produce fat rather than muscle 
cannot be too strongly condemned. 

Milk Eation for Colt. 

If the dam yields too little milk to produce vigorous 
growth in the colt, it should be increased by food of . as 
nearly the same composition as may be. This is nearly 



364 FEEDING ANIMALS. 

always at hand in cow's milk. A little practice will soon 
teach the young colt to take cow's milk with a relish. New 
milk may be given at first, but soon replaced with skim- 
milk, which, possessing so large a proportion of casein, or 
muscle-forming food, and phosphate of lime, is exactly 
adapted to the growth of muscle and bone. This is also 
so cheap that Vigorous growth may be kept up at very 
small cost. For colts one or two months old, one quart of 
milk given niorning and evening will be sufficient. It may 
be sweetened a little at first to render it more palatable. 
Colts, like children, are fond of sweets ; but sugar should 
only be added as a temj^tation in teaching them to eat, for 
it is a fattening food and imjoroper to be given as a diet. 
This use of cow's milk in growing colts is not a mere 
theory with the author, he has tested it in many in- 
stances, and found it admirably adapted to the purpose. 
He remembers two colts that were fed a little skim.-milk 
after two months old till weaned, and then continued in 
larger quantity after weaning and through the first winter. 
They were given from four to six quarts of milk each, per 
day, with hay and one quart of oats, till one year old. 
These colts grew very steadily, developing all parts of the 
body evenly, and made horses 100 lbs. heavier than either 
sire oi: dam. They were much inclined to exercise, and 
test comparative speed, at all periods during growth, and 
more muscular horses, of their inches, are seldom seen. 
We once purchased some colts six months old, of a good 
breed, that had been kept on insufficient food, and not 
properly developed for that age. To make amends for 
this want of care and food, four quarts of skim-milk was 
given to each colt for one month and then increased to six 
quarts, which ration, with two quarts of oats per day, was 
continued for six months, or till one year old. This pro- 
duced a development which no grain ratiorti could have 
done. The advantage of the milk ration over a like amount 



EATION FOR COLT. 365 

of food, containing the same elements, in another form, is, 
that the food in the milk is in solution and very easily 
digested. Stress is laid npon this milk feeding for colts, 
first, because it is a most appropriate food; secondly, 
because in large portions of the country skim-milk can be 
had cheap, and it may be thus turned to the best account, 
for horse-flesh is more valuable than that of other animals. 
If milk is not easily obtained, then the colt may be fed a 
pint of oats twice a day, in addition to the milk of its 
dam, if that is too small in quantity. Before the colt is 
weaned, it is well to teach it to eat a little linseed-meal 
with its oats. When deprived of the dam's milk this 
linseed-meal will prevent constipation and furnish a large 
proportion of muscle-forming food as well as bone material. 
About one pint of linseed-meal per day will be sufficient. 
Another food, which we have used very profitably for the 
young colt, is linseed or flax-seed. A half-pint of flax- 
seed boiled in four quarts of water, and then two quarts 
of bran or oatmeal boiled with it, makes an excellent day's 
ration for a colt eight months old, given in two parts — 
the oil and the albuminoids seem to be in just the right 
proportion. We have found this ration of flax-seed and 
oatmeal gruel the best preventative of relaxation or consti- 
pation of the bowels, both in the colt and the calf. If the 
colt is in good condition, half the quantity here mentioned 
is sufficient. The small quantity of oil seems to be very 
soothing to the alimentary canal, and it gives a smooth, 
glossy coat. 

Food for the Dam. 

The condition and health of the dam has much to do 
with the health of the colt. Great care should be taken 
that the dam does not heat her blood, and thus affect the 
healthfulness of her milk. The milk secretions are very 
sympathetic with all nervous excitements. This has often 



366 FEEDIN'G AKIMALS. 

been tested in tlie milk of the cow. The chemical compo- 
sition of the milk has been largely changed in its propor- 
tions by a little worry and excitement, such as rapid driv- 
ing, or being worried by a dog. There is no objection to- 
light work for the dam after the foal is two weeks old ; but 
this should be such Avork as she can do without worry or 
too much fatigue. The foal should early be accustomed to 
being left in a loose box or stable. That the dam may be 
able to furnish a generous supply of milk to the foal, she 
must have a liberal supply of food herself. It must be re- 
membered, that the dam requires food for the support of 
two lives, and that, if she is required to do light labor in 
addition, she must have a ration in proportion. We have 
seen, from the composition of the mare's milk (page 138), 
that it is rich in albuminoids, and, therefore, her food must 
be rich in albuminous elements. Pasture grasses, when a 
few inches high, contain a much larger percentage of albu- 
minoids than when in the mature state. This accounts for 
the large yield of milk by cows, and the rapid laying-on of 
flesh by steers, when feeding upon such vigorously-growing 
young grass. Clover, before blossom, is also a most excel- 
lent food for the dam and for the colt. But the dam 
should also have a small grain ration, even upon good pas- 
ture, when she is required to perform labor. Good wheat 
bran is a very appropriate extra ration for the dam, because 
it contains from 12 to 16 per cent, of albuminous food; 
but oats are equally rich in nitrogen, and are always proper 
food for the brood mare. If the dam is being fed upon 
hay, then she should have a daily bran mash, with one 
pint of oil-meal added — such sloppy food will increase the 
secretion of milk when upon dry fodder. The new process 
linseed-meal will be found profitable food for the dam in 
small quantity, say one to two pounds per day. It is more 
important if the dam is on dry food. The dam, during 
this period, should be treated with great kindness and gen- 



WEIGHT AND GROWTH OF FOALS. 367 

tleness, avoiding all excitement. If the foal is allowed 
occasionally to go to the field with the dam while at work, 
and also on the road, for very short drives, it will familiar- 
ize it with such objects as will surround it afterwards, and 
it will thus be made more fearless. 

The colt should be handled almost daily while with the 
dam, and made familiar with men. Great care should be 
taken to avoid frightening it. It should be taught to 
regard man as its greatest friend, from whom it may always 
expect a pleasant caress, or something agreeable to eat. 
This is not only important in reference to its future temper 
and usefulness, but vastly important to its rapid growth. 
Animals do not thrive under excitement and irritation. 
There is no place for a passionate man among young ani- 
mals, and not a very profitable place for him anywhere. 
We often hear of very diiferent results from the same food, 
upon animals of the same age and class ; but our experi- 
ence has proved that this is caused in more cases by the 
feeder than the animal. If, then, the colt-raiser desires to 
produce the greatest result with the least food, he must 
accompany the food with the kindest and most pleasant 
treatment. 

Weight a]S"d Growth of Foals. 

The rate of growth in foals, and the food required to 
make a pound growtli, have not been much studied. In- 
deed, we are aware of but one published experiment as to 
the weight and growth of foals, besides the one made by 
the author. Some years since he weighed three foals at 
birth; the dam of No. 1 weighing 1,000 lbs.; of No. 2, 
1,025 lbs., and of No. 3, 950 lbs. The sire (a good general 
purpose horse) weighed 1,120 lbs. The following table 
will show the weight and growth of these foals for two 
separate periods, as well as those in the experiments of 
Boussingault: 



368 



FEEDIN'G ANIMALS. 



Nahbb. 



^ 








^ ' 


03 


ce 






05 Wl- 




*> X 


^ 


p. 


■^■SS- 




bo-a 

is 




«3 .>• 

Ot3 




^ 


^ 


M 


- a 


^ 


lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


108 


280 


172 


1.91 


400 


116 


301 


185 


2.05 


410 


111 


310 
at Sr days 


199 


2.21 


390 
at 152 days 


110 


294 


184 


2.1 




113 


286 


172 


1.9 


358 


113 


354 


241 


2.7 


at ieo'days 


110 


at 128 days 


185 


2.05 


396 
at 179 days 


110 


337 


227 


1.8 


490 



o1 ^^-a 



No.l,Pilly. 
No. 2, Colt.. 
No. 3, Filly 



BOUSSINQATTLT, 

No. 1, Filly 

No. 2, " 

No. 3, " 



No. 4, " 
No. 5, Colt. 



lbs. 
2.00 
1.81 
1.33 



1.10 

1.10 
1.4 



The first four in Boussingault's experiment were weaned 
at 87 days, and No. 5 at 128 days. The second period was 
after weaning, and the gain was much slower. The mean 
increase of his foals during the period of suckling was 2.11 
lbs per day. Our three foals had only the milk of the 
dams during 90 days, and the average gain per day was 
2.06 lbs. The next 60 days they each had one pint of oats 
per day, in addition to milk of dam, and the average gain 
per day was 1.71 lbs. Had the extra feed been one quart, 
they would probably have gained as fast as during the first 
90 days. The colt, however, is no exception to other ani- 
mals, in that the increase is more rapid, on the same food, 
while under three or four months old than afterward. 

We continued the experiment by noting the gain in 
weight of our three colts for 180 days longer, weighing the 
food given, so as to determine the cost in food of each 
pound of live weight. Each colt had two quarts of skim- 
milk, commencing on the 16tli of November, given with 
oat-meal at the time of weaning, and continuing for 30 
days. The average ration per day for the whole 180 days, 
from the 16th of November to the 15th of May, exclusive 
of milk, consisted of 22 lbs. of clover hay, lbs. of oat- 
meal, 3 lbs. of wheat bran, and 2 lbs. of oil-meal, for the 
three, making a daily allowance per head of 11 lbs. of this 



GROWTH OF FOALS. 369 

mixed food. The weight of each on the 15th day ot May, 
was, No. 1, 634 lbs., a gain of 1.3 lbs. per day; No. 2, 616 
lbs., a gain of 1.14 lbs, per day; No. 3, 630 lbs., a gain of 
1.33 lbs. per day; being an average gain of 1.26 lbs. per 
head per day, during the cold season, on 11 lbs. of mixed 
food. This gives a pound live weight for 8.72 lbs., of 
mixed food. European feeders are much accustomed to 
estimate all foods on the basis of hay; thus the 11 lbs. of 
oats and other grain would be equal to 17 lbs. of hay, 
making the whole ration equal to 39 lbs. for the three colts, 
or 13 lbs. per head. This would make a pound gain in live 
weight cost 10.31 lbs. of hay. 

Boussingault mentions that he tested the quantity of 
provender consumed by foals in full growth by taking Nos. 
2, 4 and 5 when their united weight was 1,106 lbs., or their 
average weight 368.6 lbs., and found that they consumed 
19.8 lbs. of hay and 7 lbs. of oats, which he calls equal to 
11 lbs. of hay— all equal to 30.8 lbs. of hay, or 10.26 lbs. 
each. On this they made an average gain of 1.2 lbs, per 
day. This was doing slightly better than our three colts ; 
but he does not state how long this experiment continued, 
and we are left to infer that it was not long. Both of 
these cases show that the colt utilizes his food as well, and 
adds a pound live weight from about the same food as the 
calf. If we take the united weight (1,200 lbs.) of our three 
colts on the 16th of November, and their united weight 
(1,880 lbs.) on the 15th of May, we shall find that their 
average weight during that 180 days was 1,540 lbs., or 519 
lbs. each; and if we call the ration 13 lbs. of hay, it gives 
2H per cent, of their live weight as an average ration. If 
we estimate the cost of this ration, we shall find the cost of 
putting a pound live weight upon a foal under full feeding, 

22 lbs. of hay, at ^ cent 11 cts. 

6 " oats, at 13^ cents 73^ " 

3 " bran, at % cent 2}^ " 

2 " oil-meal, at 2 cents 4 " 

Cost of 3.79 lbs. of gain 24% cts. 



370 FEEDING ANIMALS. 

This makes a pound live weight put on a colt during the 
second- six mouths cost 03^ cents. If we can raise good 
colts at this price for food, then horse-raising must be prof- 
itable. It is not claimed that this experiment establishes 
this cost accurately, but, in connection with the French 
experiments, it may be considered an approximation. It is 
quite reasonable to suppose, from present indications, that 
the farmers of the United States are to find as profitable a 
market for horses in Europe as for cattle; and thus this 
subject becomes one of great importance. 

The foal will be afiected favorably or unfavorably by the 
liberal or illiberal treatment of the dam before parturition, 
as well as the treatment of the dam and foal after the birth 
of the latter. The summer pasture furnished mares and 
foals should contain shelter against sun and rain. Open 
sheds are best, although trees with thick foliage will answer 
every j^urpose. But care must be taken that these wood 
pastures are not covered with logs upon which the foals 
may be injured. An open wood, by its cool shade, is favor- 
able as a pasture, but it should be so cleaned up as to 
obviate all danger of injury to foals. The young foal is 
easily injured and an unsoundness inflicted. A prudent 
foresight should guard at least against probable dangers. 
When the dam and foal are kept in stable it should not 
only be warm and comfortable, but well lighted. Light is 
most important to young animals, and, in fact, to all ani- 
mals. If the dam be fed generously during pregnancy and 
whilst nursing the^ foal, and the foal be fed as we have 
directed, it will be, in development and weight, equal to an 
ordinary three-year-old at twenty-four months. 

Exercise for Colts. 

These young things are inclined to be jjlayful and exer- 
cise their muscles liberally, and this, under proper j^recau- 
tions, should be encouraged. Muscles become developed, 



FOOD FOR HORSES. 371 

and acquire strength and endurance by exercise. These 
tender things will of course only lay the foundation for this 
development of muscle at this early age. This playful 
exercise consumes food which must be supplied with a lib- 
eral hand, for this exercise is necessary to the value of the 
future horse. The young eagle takes frequent short circles 
around its home-nest, preparatory to those longer flights 
with pinions nerved against the fierce, rude blasts over 
mountain and valley. Nature's process of educating colt 
and eaglet is very similar. Muscular development, great 
endurance come of frequent exercise. The foal is allowed 
to travel a few miles with the dam each day, after a month 
or two old, to give gentle exercise. In all cases care is 
taken not to heat the blood of the dam, and the moderate 
exercise of the foal in following her is a benefit. 

Food for Horses. 

The horse is one of the most important of our domestic 
animals, being the principal draft animal on the farm, in 
cities, for commercial transshijiment, and upon public roads. 
We have twelve millions of horses to feed and care for; and 
a knowledge of all the economies in their maintenance is of 
the highest consideration. Unfortunately, science has not 
made many accurate experiments to determine the proper 
feeding standards for horses under the various purposes for 
which they are kept. 

Youatt gives the proportion of the ration usually em- 
ployed in England for agricultural cart-horses as 8 pounds 
of oats and 2 of beans, added to 20 pounds of chaff ; and 
then 34 or 36 pounds of the mixture is given as a day's 
ration to moderate-sized horses (probably of about 1,400 
pounds' weight), on hard work. This chaff is hay and 
straw — half and half — cut together. And in this case they 
give no long hay at night. This observing aatlior says of 
this mixed feed (grain and chaff together) : " By this 



372 FEEDING ANIMALS. 

means the animal is compelled to chew his food; he cannot 
waste the straw or hay; the chaff is too hard and too sharp 
to be swallowed without sufficient mastication ; and, while 
he is forced to grind that down, the oats and beans are 
ground with it, and yield more nourishment; the stomach 
is more slowly filled, and, therefore, acts better on its con- 
tents, and is not so likely to be overloaded. The increased 
quantity of saliva thrown out in the lengthened maceration 
of the food softens it and makes it fit for digestion." 

He recommends, however, that the oats and beans should 
be ground and mixed with the chaff after slightly moisten- 
ing it, so that the meal will not separate from it, but must 
be masticated with the chaff. This practice is quite gener- 
ally followed by the English farmers. This last method is 
what they call manger feeding, and they give, as among 
the advantages of this system, that horses can completely 
masticate their food in a much shorter time, and leave so 
much longer time for rest. 

The author has often urged the economy of this system 
of cutting the fodder of the horse and mingling the ground 
grain with it ; and this has become the basis of the system 
in operation for feeding large numbers of horses on stage, 
omnibus and railroad lines, both in this country and in 
Europe. 

German Experiments. 

Some recent experiments have been made, under the 
direction of Dr. Wolff, at Hohenheim, to test the compara- 
tive digestibility of foods by the horse and sheep ; and, 
incidentally, they show the amount of food required by the 
horse experimented upon. Unfortunately the experiments 
were all made upon the same horse. The criticism to 
which German experiments are most liable is that they are 
generally tried on too limited a scale, and for too short 
periods, to fully accomplish the purpose intended ; and yet 
these experiments have much interest on account of the 



FEEDIN-G HORSES. 373 

great care iu their execution , they throw much light upon 
the comparative economy of digestion in the horse and sheep, 
or between the ruminating and non-ruminatmg animals. 
Dr Armsby translates the conclusions arrived at by Wolff, 
as follows . 

1. Meadow hay is less fully digested by the horse than 
the sheep, the difference amounting to 11 or 12 per cent, of 
the dry substance. 

2. The crude albuminoids of the hay is nearly as digest- 
ible by the horse as by sheep. In the better qualities of 
hay experimented upon, the difference amounted to from 
4 to 6 per cent, of the total amount ; wliile, m some of the 
poorer sorts, more was digested by the horse than by the 
sheep. 

3. Of the non-nitrogenous constituents of hay, the 
nitrogen-free extract is slightly, and the crude fibre consid- 
erably better digested by the sheep than by the horse. As 
a result, the nutritive ratio of the portion of the hay 
digested is narrower m the case of the horse than in that of 
sheep. As regards fat, all the experiments gave very low 
results for this nutrient, owing to the presence of a consid- 
erable quantity of biliary products, etc., in the excrements. 

4. In two kinds of lucerne hay the nitrogenous and 
nitrogen-free extract were equally well digested by the 
horse and by sheep, while the crude fibre appeared to be 
relatively better digested than that of meadow hay. 

5. The digestibility of winter wheat straw was found to 
depend somewhat on the amount of mastication it received ; 
but in general to be small. Under ordinary circumstances 
it seems to be hardly half as well digested by the horse as 
by ruminants. 

6. Concentrated feeding stuffs (oats, beans and maize, 
the two latter soaked with water) are digested to the same 
extent by the horse and by sheep. 



374 FEEDING ANIMALS. 

The result of the experiments on concentrated foods and 
coarse fodders seems to be borne out fully by practical ex- 
perience m this country, m feeding the large numbers of 
horses used for hard labor on street railroads and omnibus 
lines, and with the practice of all livery men in cities and 
towns. It is found to be most profitable to feed only from 
9 to 12 pounds of hay per day to each horse, and the rest 
of the ration in gram, either ground or whole. The ten- 
dency for the last twenty years has been to lessen the quan- 
tity of hay or other coarse fodder, while the oats or ground 
feed has been increased. 

These experiments of Wolff show pretty clearly why the 
practice has taken this form. The concentrated food is 
better digested than the coarse fodder, after a certain 
amount is given. It requires a proportion of fibrous food 
to keep horses healthy ; and from 25 to 40 per cent, of the 
whole weight of the ration for a work horse may be hay, 
and this will be economically digested. The light livery 
horse usually gets 8 to 10 pounds of hay and 12 pounds of 
oats; but the work horse gets 12 pounds of hay and 16 
pounds of gram, often corn and oats ground together. It 
IS well settled in practice that concentrated food is cheap- 
est for the largest proportion of the ration for horses. And 
this appears to be scientifically explained in these German 
experiments. But Ave must not fail to gain what informa- 
tion these expermients afford m relation to the 

Standard Ration • 

required by a horse of given weight. The horse experu 
mented upon had a weight varying from l',100 to 1,200 
lbs., and, when fed on hay exclusively, ate from 22 to 273^ 
lbs. per day, This was equal to from 19.4 to 24 lbs. of dry 



FEEDING HORSES. 375 

foodj and when grain was also fed, the largest amount of 
dry matter was 25 lbs. 

The experiments upon this one horse would indicate 
that 20 to 25 lbs. of dry matter is a full ration for a horse 
of 1,200 lbs- weight. Dr. Wolff found, during these experi- 
ments, that sheep consumed, per 1,000 lbs. live weight, 
31.25 lbs. of hay, having 27.2 lbs. of dry matter. Some 
have interpreted this to mean that ruminants consume 
much more per weight than non-ruminants — as the sheep 
have consumed 30.7 per cent, more, per weight, than the 
horse — but this is probably an erroneous conclusion, for a 
proper consideration of the difference in the size of the 
animals may account for a large part of this greater con- 
sumption by the sheep. It would take six large or eight 
moderate-sized sheep to equal this horse in weight. Ex- 
periment has very clearly shown that large animals eat less, 
per weight, than smaller ones of the same species; that is, 
a horse weighing 1,600 lbs. will eat less than two horses of 
800 lbs. weight; or two cows of 1,200 lbs. weight, each will 
eat less than three of 800 lbs. weight each. This is 
accounted for by greater surface for radiation of heat in 
the smaller animals, causing a greater consumption of 
respiratory food. But it is also probable that this horse 
was individually peculiar in the small consumption of food. 
And the following table, containing a summary of these 
experiments, shows that this horse often took insufficient 
nutrition to keep his normal weight. This table is instruc- 
tive, as showing the amount of food digested, the work 
performed, and the changes m live weight. The work per- 
formed by the horse is represented in kilogramme-metres; 
an ordinary day's work being estimated at 1,500,000 
kilogramme-metres. 



376 



FEEDING ANIMALS. 
Light Work. 





















^ 


6 








Digested 


Per Day. 




"ho 


3 to' 


















S 


. CU 


'i^ 




>j 










•^ 


^ 


>> J3 


ft 




•a 






Q) 


i2 


o 


<s> 


- 1 


X 


s 




■a 




rt 


a 


"S 


> 


ft S 


o 


'S 


ft 


o 

.5 






3 


? 


B ^ 


^1 


tc 5 

g s 

h-1 


3 


o 


S 
< 


1 


6 

o 


a 
"a 
o 




tB 




days 


lbs 


lbs 


lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 




lbs 


475,000 


62 


1,078 


18 6 


1.3 


0.4 


7 9 


9.6 


6 9 


-1 


475.100 


28 


1,1.57 


24 


1 8 


4 


10.5 


12.7 


6.4 





600,000 


14 


1.197 


18 5 


1.4 


0.1 


7 2 


8.7 


5 6 


-2 


6110,000 


14 


1,151 


16.7 


2 


0.1 


6 7 


8 8 


3 4 


-3 3 


600,000 


56 


1,003 


21 3 


8 1 


1 


8.8 


12.0 


3 





600.000 


25 


1,034 


24 ( 


4 


0.1 


10 9 


15 


2,8 


+1.1 


600.000 


80 


1,065 


25 


3 3 


2 


12 3 


15 8 


3 9 


+ 1 


600,000 


39 


1,140 


24 9 


2 2 


0.4 


13 4 


16 


6 5 


+2.1 


Ordinary 




















Work 




















1,108,000 


40 


1,120 


24 


1.8 


4 


10 8 


13 


6 7 


-1.4 


1,800,000 


30 


1,010 


21.4 


3 9 


1 


8.7 


11.8 


3 


-2 8 



The experiments with hght work show the amount of 
food required to sustain a horse ol this weight under such 
circumstances, showing a loss m weight when the amount 
of dry food digested fell under 12 lbs,, and when it exceeded 
13 lbs., there was a gam in weight. But when the horse 
was put at ordinary work he lost 1.4 lbs per day on 13 
lbs, of nutriments utilized, and under heavier Avork, with 
slightly less food, lost 2.8 lbs per day. The great omission 
here is that a full ration for heavy work, or even average 
work, was not given, and therefore it does not appear what 
ration would have been sufficient to keep his normal weight 
under full work. It is probable, that under the 7tli and 
8th rations for light work, with which he gained from 1 
to 2 lbs. per day, would have sustained hini under heavy 
Avork. These experiments seem to have been tried, 
primarily, to determine the digestibility of the foods, but 
they might have been made equally valuable also in the 
determining the proper standard for work. 



FEEDING HORSES. 

Dr. Wolff recommends the following: 

Feeding Standards for Horses, 
Per 1,000 lbs. Live Weight. 



377 







Digestible. 
















































a 


S 






u 




►> 








o 




•a 
"3 


a 

3 


i1 




> 




o 


£1 


U^ 




1 




H 


< 


o 


fe 


^ . 




lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 




Light work 


31.0 


1.5 


9.1 


0.3 


6.5 


Ordinary work 


22.5 


1.8 


11.2 


0.6 


7.0 


Heavy work 


25.5 


2.8 


13.4 


0.8 


5.5 



It is to be regretted that these experiments could not 
have been tested upon at least five horses, so that their 
teaching could have been given a confident, general 
application. 

Practical Rations. 

We shall now consider the practical rations established 
in this country, as applied to large numbers of horses 
devoted to special work. The establishment of street 
railroads in cities has given steady and exacting employ- 
ment to many thousands of horses. The cost of feeding 
so many animals has been the large item which has called 
for careful study to determine the most economical ration 
consistent with highest efficiency of service. Many 
experiments were made with various kinds of grain, and 
various methods of preparing the ration. Hay was fed 
long, and the grain, ground or whole, fed alone; but it was 
soon found that much more long hay was required than 
when cut into short lengths, and the ground grain fed 
upon the hay. Their experience was similar to that of 
the London Omnibus Company, many years ago. This 
company had 6,000 horses, and determined to test the 



378 FEEDING ANIMALS. 

relative value of cut and uncut hay, as well as ground 
and unground grain. To this end, 3,000 horses were fed 
ground oats, cut hay, and straw; and 3,000 were fed upon 
uncut hay and unground oats. The allowance to the first 
was — ground oats, 16 lbs.; cut hay, 7% lbs.; cut straw, 214 
lbs. To the second was allowed — unground oats, 19 lbs.; 
uncut hay, 13 lbs. The horses which had 26 lbs. of ground 
oats, cut straw, and hay, did the same work as well, and 
kej)t in as good condition, as those that had 32 lbs. of 
unground oats and uncut hay. This was a saving of 6 lbs. 
per day on the feed of each horse, and was estimated at 
5 cents per day, per horse, or 1300 per day upon the 6,000 
horses. This was demonstrating the economy of machinery 
over horse muscle in the mastication of food. These 
figures have a significance that would not attach to an 
experiment with a few horses. The result of a ration 
applied to 3,000 horses must be accepted as an unques- 
tionable fact. In this it is a great contrast to the German 
experiments ir[:)on a single animal. The real advantage 
was not all in saving animal muscle in cutting and grind- 
ing; but the grinding reduced the grain to finer j)articles 
than the horse would masticate it; and, besides this, it 
assisted the hard-worked animal in eating its meals in so 
much less time ; and this, giving so much more time to 
rest, would have a favorable effect upon its condition. 

The ration of thousands of horses on street railroads in 
this country has, finally, been fixed upon the same princi- 
ples. The ration'for summer is half oats and half corn, 
ground together, 16 lbs.- to each horse, with 12 lbs, of 
cut hay. In winter, 16 lbs. of corn-meal, with the same 
amount of hay, forms the ration. Corn-meal alone, in 
summer is too heating; but, in winter, the corn-meal 
seems well adapted to keeping up animal heat and con- 
dition, and, being cheaper than oats, is generally adopted 
in New York City; but in many other cities half oats is 



FEEDING HORSES. 379 

used tlie year round. If these companies would substitute 
clover hay for timothy, corn-meal would make a well- 
balanced ration. The clover would make up for the 
deficiency of the corn-meal in muscle-sustaining food. 
Clover is rejected because it is liable to be dusty, which 
may develop heaves; but this fear is groundless under the 
plan now adopted of moistening the cut hay and mixing 
the meal with it. It is fed in a damp condition, and, 
therefore, no dust can be present to alfect the lung. Clover 
hay is not properly appreciated as a food for horses. It has 
a higher value than timothy, and is usually sold $2 to 13 
per ton lower in market. 

There are, probably, fifty thousand horses fed in our 
cities, for railroad and omnibus lines, on a ration very 
similar to these described. And if we go back forty years, 
we find that the Germans and Hungarians fed a ration 
very similar. 

Mr. C. L. Fleischman gives the ration used upon the 
manor of Alcsuth, in Hungary, about 1840. Horses at 
labor were fed 12 quarts of heavy oats, 6 lbs. of hay, 4 lbs. 
of oat-straw, and 5 lbs. of steamed chaff. This is very 
similar to the London Omnibus Company's ration, being 
about the same Aveight as the ground oats, but less valuable, 
because unground; yet the steamed chaflf would compensate 
for this. 

The ration of all corn-meal and hay is not to be ajjproved, 
except in winter, and not wholly then. The horse is used 
simply for his muscle, and corn is especially a fattening 
food, and not the best to replace wasted muscle. It is 
most admirably adajited as a respiratory food — producing 
animal heat andfat^-and requires to be combined with 
more nitrogenous food. And a careful examination of the 
facts relating to the health and durability of horses, where 
corn-meal is fed almost wholly for grain, will show that 
they do not last so long as where oats are fed for the 



380 FEEDING AISflMALS. 

whole or half of the ration. The heating nature of corn 
will cause horses to perspire more easily, and thus subject 
them to the dangers of many diseases. This heating food 
is also a fruitful cause of diseases of the feet, which soon 
disable horses upon city pavements. The New York and 
Brooklyn car companies say that the average usefulness 
of a horse to them is four years. This is quite too short a 
time, if all the proper conditions of food and care are 
observed. These companies feed principally upon corn- 
meal, and sometimes the year round wholly upon corn as 
the grain food. There are other cities, employing 300 or 
more car horses, that feed half oats and half corn, ground 
together, upon 12 lbs. of hay, the average usefulness of 
whose horses is six years. It is also found that horses 
which have been raised largely upon corn are too tender- 
footed to stand city pavement. It is for this reason that 
Canada horses are preferred for street-car service; they 
having been raised upon grass, oats, roots and peas. Corn 
is the standard food for beef raising; but not for build- 
ing up the best horse muscle and bone in rearing colts, or 
as an exclusive grain diet for hard work. Western horse 
raisers should study this question of the effect of an exces- 
sive corn ration upon the stamina of their young horses. 
Oats and barley should furnish the grain food for their 
colts. Corn may properly enter into every ration for work ; 
and we shall soon consider the various combinations that 
may be made with corn as the basis of the ration. 

As has been seen horses digest concentrated food, such 
as grain, when that forms part of the ration, better than 
coarse fodder, when that forms the whole ration. And it 
is at this point that we wish to give a ohort discussion of 
the necessity for 

Bulky Food 
as part of the ration for the horse. We have incidentally 
I'eferred to this before, but it requires a sej^arate and special 



FEEDIN-G HOKSES. 381 

Consideration, as it does not seem to be clearly understood 
even by some veterinarians of high standing. For in- 
stance, Dr. Spooner, of England, in discussing rations for 
horses, in Morton's "■ Cyclopedia of Agriculture/' after 
speaking of tlie small comparative size of the stomach of 
the horse, sa}'s: ''It seems evident that he was intended 
by nature to consume concentrated food, such as grain; 
and the formation of the molar teeth strongly corroborates 
this view of the matter. These molar teeth, or grinders, 
as they are very expressively termed, are broader and less 
cutting than those of the ox, but decidedly better adapted 
for grinding corn, as in a mill ; for the teeth of the ujiper 
and lower jaw do not exactly correspond, but the teeth of 
the latter are narrower, as well as the jaw itself, so that the 
lower jaw is moved from side to side, and the grain is thus 
triturated and ground as between two millstones." 

From this he concludes that " such poor, bulky food as 
straw or roots is unwholesome and innutritions as a diet 
for working horses, as unwholesome as for man to live 
entirely upon potatoes." 

This view is certainly reasonable ; and then he goes on 
to speak of good hay being the cheapest food for horses, 
considering its nutriment, but that it is too bulky as a 
complete ration for labor. Oats, he finds dearer, but con- 
taining just the nutriment to sustain and replace muscle 
wasted in labor. Beans are still more concentrated than 
oats, and contain a larger proportion of muscle-sustaining 
food, and are cheaper; but if given freely are too heating 
and stimulating, and are apt to produce inflammatory 
swellings of the limbs. Beans may be given in combina- 
tion with oats — one-third beans and two-thirds oats. He 
says it has been proposed to overcome the too concentrated 
and heating nature of beans by feeding with bran: that 
beans are astringent and bran laxative, so far as they 
supply each other's deficiencies, but closely resemble each 



382 FEEDING ANIMALS. 

other in abundance of albuminous elements; and both are 
deficient in starch, etc. He tried the experiment of sub- 
stituting a bushel of beans and a bushel of. bran for two 
bushels of oats, but he soon found that the horses did not 
do so well on this diet. 

This is the substance of his explanation. It appears 
evident that he did not quite see that the bean-and-bran 
ration lacked husk or Avoody fibre to make a proportional 
bulk to the nutriment contained. Oats contain as much 
bulk of fibre as of concentrated meal when ground, and 
therefore, Avhen masticated, the food goes into the stomach 
in a light, porous condition, and the gastric fluid can pass 
freely through it and act upon every part at once, while 
the bean-meal and bran would form a more compact mass, 
and the gastric fluid could not so completely act upon it, 
and the result is the inflammatory swellings which he 
mentions. The result was not caused by the defective 
nutrition contained in the food, but from its compact 
nature. The horse's digestive organs are adapted to a 
larger proportion of concentrated food than those of the 
ox, but cannot be healthy upon concentrated food alone. 
In a state of nature the horse is nourished upon the 
grasses, and it must have a proportion (at least one-half in 
bulk) of fibrous food; and this fibrous food must be 
mingled with the concentrated, so as to render the food as 
it goes into the stomach porous. This is the significance 
of bulk in food. It is quite true that the horse must have 
a ration Avell balanced in all the constituents required to 
keep up animal heat and to supply the natural waste of the 
system, but this ration must also bo so made up, mechani- 
cally, that the digesting fluid can properly act upon it. 
Inattention to this point has been, perhaps, the most 
fruitful cause of all his ills. In the use of bean-meal as a 
grain ration, if Dr. Spooner had mixed this bean-meal with 
three times its bulk of cut hay, all danger from its con- 



FEEDIN^G HOESES. 383 

centrated nature would have been avoided. This is not 
theory ; we have thoroughly tested pea-meal (a food almost 
exactly smiilar, chemically) by feeding horses under heavy 
Avork upon 16 lbs. of pea-meal, mixed and fed with one 
bushel of cut hay, the hay being moistened so that the 
pea-meal would adhere to the hay and all be eaten together. 
Long hay was given in addition, making about 12 lbs. of 
hay. .Four horses were thus fed for four months, per- 
forming full daily labor. The average weight of the 
horses at the beginning of the experiment was 1,050 lbs., 
and at the end, 1,065 lbs. We carefully watched the con- 
dition and health of the horses, and found both quite 
satisfactory. There was no indication of a feverish state of 
the system, or any disturbance of the digestive functions, 
and the appetite remained very uniform with every appear- 
ance of content. We should have continued this ration 
indefinitely but for the higher price of peas than of corn 
and oats. 

If we examine this ration of pea-meal and hay, we find 
it well adapted to heavy work — the digestible albuminoids 
being 3.82 lbs., carbo-hydrates 13.91 lbs., and fat .44 lbs. — 
the entire digestible nutrients amounting to 18.17 lbs., 
with a nutritive ratio of 1:4. This is slightly deficient in 
fat, with an excess of muscle-forming matter ; but we regard 
it as better than Wolff's ration for heavy work, given on 
page 377. The fact that the horses made a slight gain in 
weight proved that the extra muscle-forming food was well 
applied. But the principal object was to determine the 
effect of mixing this concentrated food with hay to give 
bulk and a porous condition to the food in the stomach. 
This effect was emphasized from an opposite experiment, 
tried at the same time, by a neighbor who did not think it 
made any difference whether the pea-meal was mixed with 
the hay or fed separately, with the hay given uncut. He 
also fed four horses, of about the same weight as those in 



384 FEEDING AN^IMALS. 

my experiment. His were engaged in lumbering, and 
often hauled heavy loads. He fed 16 lbs. of pea-meal per 
horse, in three feeds. Within six weeks two of his horses 
had severe attacks of colic, and both of the others had to 
be treated for constipation. The writer then prevailed 
upon him to feed the pea-meal with one bushel of cut hay, 
in the manner above stated, and in a few weeks they were 
all in apparent health and able to do efficient work. The 
effect was so favorable, that he continued to feed meal — 
whether of peas, corn or other grain, mixed with cut hay 
— and told the author that he never had a case of colic 
afterwards. 

COKN-MEAL FOR HORSES. 

Corn-meal has long been a staple food for horses, as well 
as other stock in the United States, and is now largely 
purchased in England and Europe as a part of the ration 
for work-horses. It is quite as concentrated as bean-meal, 
and more heating in its nature, because it has a larger pro- 
portion of carbo-hydrates than beans, peas, oats or barley, 
and is comparatively deficient in muscle-forming elements. 
Corn, when ground into fine meal (the best condition for 
feeding) and moistened, becomes very plastic and adheres 
into a solid mass, not easily penetrated by any liquid. 
When corn-meal is masticated by a horse it becomes satu- 
rated with saliva and takes the form of a plastic adhesive 
mass, and in this form goes into the stomach of the horse. 
It is obvious that the muscular movements of the stomach 
can only move or toll this mass about, but cannot separate 
or loosen its particles so as to render it sufficiently porous 
for the circulation and operation of the gastric juice, it 
is for this reason that whole corn, or that coarsely ground, 
may be fed alone to a horse with less danger of colic or 
other diseases induced by a fevered stomach, because in the 
form of cracked kernels it cannot adhere into such a solid, 
plastic mass, and what is not digested will he passed m the 



FEEDING HORSES. 385 

droppings. But as the object of grinding is to reduce the 
grain to such fine particles that the digesting fluid may 
saturate and completely act upon it in the shortest time, 
the value of grinding is in proportion to the fineness of 
division. And when this finely-ground corn-meal is mixed 
with a little more than half its weight, but several times 
its bulk, of cut hay, as above described, this fibrous hay so 
completely separates the particles of meal as to form a 
spongy, porous mass, that fluids will pass through freely. 
When the horse masticates the meal he also masticates the 
hay, and the whole goes into the stomach together. This 
seems to be in imitation of nature, for when the horse eats 
grain or ripened grass in its natural state, he eats the stalk 
with the seed. When man, therefore, separates the grain 
for the purpose of grinding or making a more economical 
use of, he should again mix it with fibrous food, that the 
horse may not sufier from too concentrated a food. 

And, as we have seen, the street railroad companies and 
omnibus lines have discovered the necessity of remingling 
the grain with coarse fodder. These great practical ex- 
amples are sufficient authority for the practice, but we 
thought it important to give the reasons on which the 
practice is founded. 

Indian corn is the great food crop for animals in this 
country, and is produced in nearly every county of every 
State, and probably more cases of horse colic arise from 
feeding corn-meal than from all other foods combined ; and 
this especially occurs among farm horses, because farmers 
study the philosophy of foods very little, or the efiect of 
condition in foods upon animal health. They feed what 
is most convenient and cheapest, without considering that 
any good food can be other than healthy. We have known 
of the death of at least a dozen horses which, on examina- 
tion, proved to be caused by feeding corn-meal alone. 
Some feed wet and others dry. But, when fed alone, it is 

more dangerous wet than dry, because the wet meal may 
17 



386 FEEDING AKIMALS. 

be swallowed with very little mastication, while the dry 
meal must be masticated till the saliva saturates it before 
it can be swallowed, and the saliva assists digestion. It is, 
therefore, in better condition for digestion when fed dry 
than wet. But four of those who had lost horses by 
feeding meal alone, when they changed the system and 
fed the meal upon cut hay, moistened, so that both must 
be eaten together, had no further losses or even illness of 
their horses. 

In our experience of about thirty years in feeding work 
horses, no ill eflFects have arisen from feeding corn-meal, 
ground as fine as burr millstones can properly do it, when 
mixed with cut hay or straw. We have had cases of colic, 
but it was always traced to carelessness of the feeder and 
violation of orders in not mixing the meal with cut hay. 
We have fed horses, from four years old to twenty, upon 
various concentrated grains, ground into fine meal, and they 
were always in good health when the rule of mixing fine 
meal with cut hay or straw was strictly adhered to. 

The following fatal case occurred : In our absence an 
acquaintance called, on his return from a pleasant drive of 
a hundred miles west, in June. Putting his fine, sixteen- 
hand, iron-gray horse into the barn, piloted only by a little 
boy of seven, he was proceeding to give his horse a good, 
round measure of fine corn-meal, when the boy warned 
him that it would make his horse sick if he did not mix it 
with cut hay; and he replied, "I will risk it." Starting 
an hour later to drive eight miles, he was scarcely able to 
get his horse that distance, and he died before morning. 
Speaking of it afterwards, he said : " The boy warned 
me, but I was not humble enough to learn wisdom from 
babes, and I lost my horse." But he consoled himself 
with the reflection that this experience saved him other 
horses afterwards. 

The universality of corn everywhere, and its excellent 
quality as a fattening food and for keeping horses with 



FEEDIN'G HOKSES. 



387 



light work, it becomes a matter of great importance that 
horse owners should study the best use of this food, and 
how to combine it with other foods. As we have often said, 
Indian corn is deficient in muscle-sustaining food, and the 
skill of the feeder consists in combining this with other 
grains or feeding stuffs that are rich in the elements in 
which corn is deficient. We can better point out these 
combinations after giving a table of the analyses of the dif- 
ferent grains and by-products used in different parts of the 
country as food for horses, to which we add the different 
grasses used as hay, and some straw. 



Foods. 



Headow hay, average 

Clover, red, average 

Timothy, average 

Hungarian, avernge 

Aisilie clover 

Pea-hay, ia blossom 

Early meadow (Poa annua) 

Orchard grass, in blossom 

Blue grass {Poa pratensis) 

Corn-fodder, good 

Bye-straw 

Oat-straw 

Barley-straw 

Wheat-straw 

Corn (Western yellow) 

Corn (Southern white) 

Coru-sugar meal 

Wheat middlings 

Eye-bran . 

Malt sprouts 

Linseed-cake 

Linseed-meal (new process). . . . 
Cotton-seed meal, decorticated. 

Linseed (ilax-seed) ...... 

Cotton-seed (decorticated) 

Rye 

Barley 

Oats 

Millet 



Peas . . 
Beans. 
Veteh. 



14.3 
14.5 
14.3 



Digestible 
Nutrients. 



5.4 

7.0 

5.8 

6.1 

8.4 

8.7 

6.0 

6.9 

5.9 

3.2 

0.8 

1.4 

1.3 

0.8 

7.5 

8.8 

3.8 

10.0 

10.6 

20.8 

27.6 

29.9 

33.3 

17.2 

17.1 

9.9 

8.0 

9.0 

9.5 

6.8 

20.2 

23,0 



41.0 
38.1 
43.4 
41.0 
32.1 
35.6 
42.5 
40.3 
40.0 
43.4 
36.5 
41.1 
40.6 
30.0 
67.3 
68.8 
19.3 
48.5 
50.0 
43.7 
27.0 
31.0 
17.6 
18.9 
14.7 
65.4 
58.9 
43.3 
45.0 
47.0 
55.4 
50.2 
48.2 



1.0 
1.2 
1.4 
0.9 
1.9 
1.8 
2.1 
1.9 
1.6 
1.0 
0.4 
0.7 
0.5 
0.4 
3.1 
3.1 
1.8 
3.1 
2.3 
0.9 
10.4 
2.56 
16.2 
35.2 
27.3 
1.6 
1.7 
4.7 
2.6 
1.2 
1.7 
1.4 
8.5 



8 

5.9 

8.1 

- 7.1 

4.2 

4.G 

7.9 

6.5 

7.5 

14.4 

46.9 

29.9 

32 2 

46.3 

10.0 

9.2 

7.4 

5.0 

5.3 

2.2 

2.0 

1 2 

1.8 

6.0 

4.6 

7.0 

7.9 

6.1 

5.4 

7.4 

2.9 

2.3 

2.2 



Value. 






0.64 
0.69 
0.69 
0.G6 
0.73 
0.77 
0.74 
0.94 
0.68 
0.57 
0.35 
0.44 
0.44 
0.37 
1.04 
1.09 
0.39 
1.01 
1.00 
1.23 
1.89 
1.69 
2.30 
2.44 
2.06 
1.08 
0.95 
0.98 
0.93 
0.77 
1.44 
1.51 
1.63 



T3 ja 

Q a 



1.00 
1.08 
1.09 
1.04 
1.14 
1.20 
1.16 
1.16 
1.06 
0.91 
0.55 
0.69 
0.68 
0.58 
1.62 
1.67 
0.60 
1.58 
1.56 
2.08 
2r98 
2.64 
3.60 
3.81 
3.21 
1.68 
1.47 
1.53 
1.45 
1.19 
2.25 
2.26 
2.53 



388 FEEDING AKIMALS. 

We give in the above table only the amount of digestible 
constituents, as these constitute the value of a food. This 
table contains nearly everything fed to horses. Malt 
sprouts are not often used as horse feed; but there is no 
reason why they should, not be. They are usually in a 
dusty condition, and this may be the reason why horse 
feeders have not made use of them; but as it is customary 
to soak malt-sprouts before feeding them to cattle, they are 
then in a proper condition to feed horses. Malt sprouts 
are also somewhat bulky, and when mixed with corn-meal 
will make that less concentrated. If malt sprouts are 
used, the proj^ortion may be 11 lbs. corn-meal, 5 lbs. sprouts, 
and 12 lbs. timothy hay. The corn-meal and sprouts may 
be soaked for six or more hours, and then mixed v;ith one 
bushel of cut hay. Cut hay weighs 7 to 9 lbs. per bushel. 
The other 3 lbs. of hay may be given uncut. Even poor 
hay or straw may be used in this ration, because of the 
large proj)ortion of muscle-forming matter. The vetch, of 
which an analysis is given, is not much raised in this 
country, but is in portions of Canada, and the future is 
likely to see it extensively cultivated over large portions 
of the Western States, to which it is well adapted, and is 
important as a food to balance the deficiencies of corn. 
We will now give several practical rations in which corn 
forms a part, and give the rations in detail, so as to show 
our readers how to make up rations from the table. 

These rations represent a few only of the almost end- 
less combinations' of foods that may be made for horses 
when subjected to hard work. The albuminoids should 
amount to from 2/i lbs. to 3K lbs. per day. No. 2 is ap- 
parently deficient in this element; but we have used this 
ration with good results for three or more months. It will 
also be seen that good clover hay, 13 lbs., and 16 lbs. corn- 
meal, will give 2.24 lbs. of muscle-forming matter, and 
make a very good ration to work on ; but it would be 
much improved to give 14 lbs. of corn-meal and 2 lbs. of 



FEEDING HORSES. 



389 



oil-meal. This renders it less heating, and the oil has the 
effect of cleansing the stomach and intestines, and prevent- 
ing all danger of a constipated condition of the system. 

Rations for Horses, per 1,000 lbs. Weight. 





m 
o 
O 


Dry organic substance. 


Digestible. 


No. 1. 


■a 
o 
fl 

a 

3 

< 


1 

•a 

>. 

6 

1 


'^ 
fe 




cents. 
06 
11 
03 


lbs. 

10.29 
9.57 
4.42 


lbs. 
0.69 
0.82 
1.04 


lbs. 
5.20 
7.40 
2.19 


lbs. 
17 


11 lbs. corn-meal 


34 




05 








20 1 24.28 


2.55 


14.79 


0.56 


No. 2. 


4 

12 
3X 


6.72 
5.14 
10.44 
5.32 


0.56 
0.08 
0.90 
0.60 


3.05 

2.47 
8.07 
2.91 


10 


6 lbs. oat-stniw 


0.04 
37 


6 lbs. wheat middlings 


0.19 




21 


27.62 


2.14 


16.50 


0.70 


No. 3. 
8 lbs. alsike clover 


4 
2 

10 
3 

^}4 


6.72 
4.37 
8.70 
5.23 
1.79 


0.67 
0.30 
0.75 
0.64 
0.60 


2.57 
2.60 
6.73 
3.00 
0.62 


15 


6 lbs. corn-fodder 


06 


10 lbs. corn -meal 


31 




14 


2 lbs. linseed-meal 


05 








21;^ 


26.81 


2.86 


15.52 


0.71 


No. 4. 

12 lbs. blue-grass hay 

8 lbs. corn-meal 

3 lbs. linseed-cake 


6 

8 

3>^ 


10.29 
6.96 
1.73 
5.32 


0.71 
0.60 
0.83 
0.60 


4.80 
5.38 
0.82 
2.91 


0.20 
0.25 
31 


6 lbs. wheat middlings 


0.19 




22 


24.30 


2.74 


13.91 


0.95 


No. 5. 

6 lbs. meadow hay 

8 lbs. wheat-straw 

8 lbs. corn-meal 

6 lbs. pea-meal 

2 lbs. cottou-seed meal 


3 
2 

8 


B.14 
6.86 
6.96 
5.14 
1.95 


0.33 

0.07 
O.liO 
1.21 
66 


2.46 
2.88 
5,38 
3.26 
0.35 


0.06 
0.03 
0.25 
0.10 
0.32 




22;^ 


27.95 


2.87 


14.33 


0,76 



390 FEEDING ANIMALS. 

But let US call attention to that grain ration whicli is 
easily obtaiued in all parts of the country — equal weight 
of oats and corn ground together — 16 lbs. of the composi- 
tion fed with one bushel of cut hay, or half hay and half 
striiw, will enable a team horse to do good work. But a 
better ration still is, 950 lbs. of oats, 950 lbs. of corn, and 
100 lbs. of flax-seed, all ground together. The 20th part 
of flax-seed improves the ration in albuminoids, and very 
much in oil — 35 lbs., or IM per cent, to the 2,000 lbs. We 
have fed this for long periods — sometimes tw<o years con- 
tinuously — and have found no ration that silrpasses it. It 
is well balanced as a working ration, and juSt laxative 
enough for health. It keeps the coat fine and glossy ; and, 
as I think, by its aperient quality, prevents COlds and 
other diseases following them. It is probable that decorti- 
cated cotton-seed would do as well as flax-seed, and would 
be a valuable addition to the ration for Southern horses. 
Decorticated cotton-seed meal may also be profitably used 
in the ration for horses, but it should seldom exceed \% to 
2 lbs. per day. 

The American Institute Farmers' Club appointed a com- 
mittee to make a thorough examination of the method of 
feeding in omnibus and railroad stables of New York City, 
where the number of horses is so large that a useful lesson 
could be learned. This was in 1855. (See transactions of 
that year.) We give the important part of the report, and 
our readers can study it with profit : 

"It is the objectr of the stage proprietors to get all the 
work out of their teams possible, without injury to the 
animals. Where the routes are shorter, the horses conse- 
quently make more trips, so the different amounts and pro- 
portions of food consumed are not so apparent when the 
comparison is made between the different lines, as when it 
is made also with the railroad and livery horses. The 
stage horses consume the most and the livery horses least. 



FEEDING HORSES. 391 

The stage horses are fed on cut hay and corn-meal, wet, 
and mixed in the proportion of about one lb. of hay to 
two lbs. of meal, a ratio adopted ratlier for mechanical than 
physiological reasons, as this is all the meal that can be 
made to adhere to the hay. The animals eat this mixture 
from a deej) manger. The New York Consolidated Stage 
Company use a very small quantity of salt. They think 
it causes horses to urinate too freely. They find horses 
do not eat so much when worked too hard. The large 
horses eat more than the small ones. Prefer a horse of 
1,000 to 1,100 pounds weight. If too small, they get poor, 
and cannot draw a stage; if too large, they ruin their 
feet, and their shoulders grow stiff and shrink. The 
principal objection to large horses is not so much the in- 
creased amount of food required, as the fact they are soon 
used up by wear. They would prefer for feed a mixture 
of half corn and half oats, if it were not more expensive. 
Horses do not keep fat as well on oats alone, if at hard 
labor, as on corn-meal, or a mixture of the two. 

" Straw is best for bedding. If salt hay is used, horses 
eat it, as not more than a bag of 200 pounds of salt is used 
in 3 months. G-lauber salt is allowed occasionally as a 
laxative in the spring of the year, and the animals eat it 
voraciously. If corn is too new, it is mixed with an equal 
weight of rye bran, wliich prevents scouring. Jersey 
yellow corn is best, and horses like it best. The hay is all 
cut, mixed with meal, and fed moist. No difference is 
made between day and night work. The travel is con- 
tinuous, except in warm weather, when it is sometimes 
divided, and an interval of rest allowed. In cold weather 
the horses are watered four times a day, in the stable, 
and not at all on the road. In warm weather, four times a 
day in the stables, and are allowed to sip on the middle of 
the route. 

"The amount that the company exact from each horse 
is all that he can do. In the worst of the traveling, they 



392 



FEEDING ANIMALS. 



fed 450 bags per week, of meal, of 100 lbs. each. They 
now feed 400. The horses are not allowed to drink when 
warm. If allowed to do so, it founders them. In warm 
weather a bed of sawdust is prepared for them to roll in. 
Number of horses, 335. Speed varies, but is about four 
miles an hour. Horses eat more in cold weather than in 
warm, but the difference has not been exactly determined." 



Stage Lines. 



'^^ 



= o o 

O 31 



Red Bird Stage Line 

Spring Street Stage Line 

Seventh Avenue Stage Line. . 
Sixth Avenue } horses 

R:ulroad, J mules 

N. T. Consolidated Stage Co.- 
Washington Stables, ? 

six livery horses, j 



116 
105 
227 
117 
211 
335 



17 
21 
22 
17 
17 
21^ 



18 
20 

14 

17 



IX 

4 

1 

2 

2 

2.9 



2X 



2K 



* And six quarts of oats at noon. 

From this report it appears : 

1. That it is possible to keep horses in good condition 
with hard work when fed on cut hay and corn-meal alone. 
(We proved this thoroughly in our own experience, but 
found they did better if the hay was clover.) 

2. A mixture of oats were found to benefit the horses, 
but to increase the expense of keep. Corn -meal keeps 
horses fat better than o?ts. 

3. Rye bran is found to prevent scouring. 

4. Ten pounds of hay is found sufficient for work 
horses. 

The following table, giving detailed information of the 
practice of many horse-feeders in England, is taken from 
London Agricultural Gazette, for Nov. 25, 1865, 



peediihG horses. 

Stable Feeding During Winter. 



393 



Name and Address. 



Professor Low — Elements 
of Agriculture 

H. Stephens— Book of the 
Farm 

J. Gibson, Woolmet— H. 
Soc, 1850 



4 Binnie, Scatou 

5 Thompson, Hanging Side. 

6 W. C. Spooner — Ag. Soc. 
Journal, vol. ix 

T. Aitken, Spalding, Lin- 
colnshire 

G. W. Baker, Woburn, 

Bedfordshire 

•J R. Baker, Writtle, Essex.. 

10 J. Coleman, Cirencester . . 

11 T. P. Dods, Hexham 



J. Cobban, Whitfield .... 

S. Druce, Jr., Ensham. . . 
C. Howard, Biddenham. 



J. J. Mechi, Tiptree 

W. J. Pope, Bridport . . . 

S. Rich, Didmarton, Glou- 
cestershire 

H. E. Sadler, Lavant, Sus- 
sex 



J. Morton, Whitfield Farm 

E. H. Sanford, Dover 

A. Simpson, Beauly, N. B. 

H. J. Wilson, Mansfield .. 

F. Sowerby, Aylesby, N'th 
Lincolnshire 



lbs. 
56* 



1 Ub. (%) 

"to" 



84* 



112 

llib.(?3') 



49* 

2* 



168 
140 



56 



42 
112 



lbs. 
56* 
35 

84 

70* 
84 

63 

37 

60* 
43 
84 
95 

GO* 

52 
52 

70* 

S4 

63 
84 
126 
42 
49 
52M 
28 



M 


^ 




M 


















^ 


^ 


Pi 


^ 








u 


o 








P. 


p< 


" J 


o. 










fl 


X 


•O o 


&: 


t3 


(§ 


OS 


t. 

M 


lbs. 


lbs. 

Potatoes 


lbs. 


lbs. 




56t 
Turnips 




56* 






112 






Potatoes 






2irt 


317t 
Barley 


112 


28* 


2431 


42t 


ad lib. 


14 


336 


14 


ad hb. 




42 




196 


adUb.Oi) 


20* 










140 


16 






ad hb. 
ad lib. 


56 








Linseed 








S>i 


ad Ub.* 




Swedes 








7Q 




2 bush.* 


ir 


84 




ad lib. (^)* 




M. Wurzel 








210 




ad lib.* 
ad lib. 






Grains 






2 bush. 


ad lib. 








Carrots 








350 


Bran ' 


adUb. 






13 

Tail corn 


ad lib. 






7 


105 


21 
Bran 


adUb.* 






21 


ad lib. 


cut 


oat sheaf 




ad lib.* 







$1.56 

1.44 

2.16 

2.76 
2.28 

1.14 

2.16 

2.32 
1.20 
1.74 
1.92 

1.74 

1.68 
2.04? 

1.80 
2 16? 

2.56 

2.24 

2.58 

1.32 

1.32 

1.56? 

1.92? 



Where an asterisk (*) is attached to any item, it is to be understood that the corn 
has been bruised or ground, or the hay or str:iw has been cut into chafl". Where a 
dagger (t) is appended, the article so marked has been boiled or steamed. A mark 
of interrogation (?) indicates that the result so marked is uncertain, owing to some 
indeflniteness in the account given. 

Mr. Slater, of Western Colville, Cambridgeshire, speak- 
ing of his feeding pulped roots, says : " I give all my 
cart horses a bushel per day of pulped mangel, mixed with 



394 FEEDIKG ANIMALS. 

straw and chaff. I begin in September, and continue 
using tlieni all winter and until late in the summer, or 
nearly all the year round, beginning with smaller quantity, 
about a peck, and then a half bushel, for the first week or 
two, as too many of the young-growing mangel would 
injure the horses. I believe pulped mangels, with chaff, 
are the best, cheapest, and most healthy food horses can 
eat. I always find my horses miss them when gone, late 
in summer. Young store-horses, colts, etc., do well with 
them." - 

Farmers, who preserve green corn in silos, may produce 
the same effect with ensilage, as Mr. Slater does with 
pulped mangel. There is no doubt that the pulped mangel 
have a very beneficial effect upon the digestive organs, 
but we much doubt the propriety of feeding to working 
horses as much as a bushel of pulped mangel. This 
would be equal to 60 pounds of corn ensilage or green 
corn, whilst 30 to 40 lbs. would be quite sufficient. Clover 
and the grasses ensilaged, could, properly, form one-half 
to three-fourths of the ration for liorses with slow work, 
for the clover and grass ensilage would contain the requisite 
muscle-forming food for work. 

The table last given shows the variety of food given by 
English farmers to their horses — that oats form the 
principal concentrated food of the ration, beans being fed 
sparingly, probably because of greater cost. Hay is fed 
much less liberally there than by farmers in this country, 
who, no doubt, feed too much hay and too little grain. It 
will also be notedT that English farmers, very generally 
cut the hay and straw fed to horses, and, where tbis is 
done, the ground feed is given with the chaffed hay and 
straw. This, as we have before shown, is promotive of 
easier and more complete digestion of the food and of the 
liealth of the horse. 



feeding hokses. 395 

Feediistg for Fast Work. 

It may be expected that we should speak of the rearing 
and feeding of horses used for speed. Our remarks on the 
foal and colt will mostly apply to the finest racing or 
trotting blood. We are aware that few horsemen have 
been accustomed to use, as we have recommended, cow's 
milk after weaning. But a moment's consideration of milk 
shows its distinguishing characteristics to be its casein and 
albumen — an admirable combination with nitrogen for the 
formation of muscle. This nitrogenous compound in 
milk is in solution, and easily appropriated by the digestive 
organs. A moderate allowance of sweet skimmed milk 
is exactly adapted to the continuance of the muscular 
growth of the foal after weaning. There is no objection 
to fresh milk from the cow, as it will have the cream in 
addition to the other good qualities, but sweet skimmed 
milk* will meet all the necessities of the case at consider- 
able less expense. Suppose the foal at and after weaning 
be allowed ten pounds of skimmed milk — this will con- 
tain jV pounds of digestible albuminoids or muscle- 
forming material; and it would take five quarts of oats 
to yield as much digestible nutriment for the muscular 
system. If we estimate the milk at 34 cent per pound or 
2}4 cents (a price farmers would like to realize), it will be 
seen how much cheaper it is than oats. 

We [do not mean that ten pounds of skimmed milk 
contain as much of all the elements of food as five pounds 
or quarts of oats, but that it contains as much for the 
muscles, just what is needed most at this period in the 
growth of the foal. Besides, the milk-sugar or small 
amount of fat is excellent carbonaceous food, and the ash 
contains the mineral elements of bones. For a short time 
after weaning there should be a tablespoonful of boiled 
flax-seed mixed in the milk to prevent all tendency to 
constipation. The foal should be learned also to eat a 



396 FEEDIN-G ANIMALS. 

quart of oats or fiuisked wheat middlings. There should 
be no forcing in the feeding — aim to keep a keen appetite 
for food, which assures a better digestion. 

If easily obtained this milk should be continued three 
or more months after weaning ; and after this, one quart 
of oats and one to two quarts of wheat middlings should 
be continued till grass affords a good living. 

For all constipation, rely upon small quantity of boiled 
flax-seed instead of oil, for that is dangerous from possible 
adulteration. 

In rearing this colt, designed for fast work, a parsi- 
monious policy should have no place. Scanty feeding 
must, in the nature of the case, defeat the purpose in view. 
Complete development cannot result except from generous 
feeding. The feeder may indeed choose among various 
combinations of food. Some may cost less than others, 
and yet be equally good for the purpose. But he must 
not lose sight of the fact that there must always be a 
proper combination of concentrated and bulky food. 
Horses are, perhaps, fonder of oats than any other grain, 
yet when fed too freely upon oats they will eat, with great 
relish, even the bedding in their stalls. However good a 
single food may be, an animal must not be confined to it. 
A combination of foods, given together in the same ration, 
will be relished much longer, and, for working horses, 
such combined ration will be satisfactory for many months 
together, but for the horse, devoted to fast work, his taste 
must be studied and humored by a frequent change of food, 
each selected, however, for its quality of nourishing the 
muscles. 

The English farmer raises the horse-bean as a specialty 
for horses, but that species does not succeed in this country. 
Our grains, which maybe considered especially appropriate 
in larger or smaller quantity for the healthy develop- 
ment of horse muscle, are : Oats, barley, rye, millet, peas, 



FEEDING HORSES. 397 

vetch, and the oil-bearing flax-seec^ and, perhaps, cotton- 
seed. Cotton-seed, when decorticated, would be excellent 
to mix 1-20 with oats, barlej^ rje, etc., before grinding. 
When the tough rind is taken off it is a healthy food, in 
small quantity. Its large per cent, of oil would prevent 
its being fed as more than a fifteenth part of the ration. 
But the oil in that small part of the ration Avould be suffi- 
cient to keep the digestive organs in an open, healthy con- 
dition. All this may be more strongly said of the good 
effects of flax-seed, when used in this small proportion. 
The husk of flax-seed is not objectionable like that of 
cotton-seed, and the oil is extremely mild and soothing. 

The author has used flax-seed, in the small proportion 
mentioned, in feeding colts, intended for fast work, with 
the most satisfactory results — keeping their coats in fine 
condition, the skin clean, the bowels free, and by this giving 
an even development to the muscles of the limbs and 
whole body. When thus using flax-seed in the ration, 
never had a case of staring coat or feverish condition of 
the system. 

We have given these various grains, which are easily 
produced in most parts of the country, and will afford a 
good variety of food to promote the health and growth of 
the young, and the health and capacity for work in the 
mature horse. 

Oats, by common consent, stand at the head. But it is 
highly probable, that the real reason for this general 
preference for oats, rests upon the fact that about % of 
oats consists of husk, which must be eaten with the meat 
of the grain, and thus gives bulk in the masticated food, 
and a loose texture through its substance, permitting a 
freer circulation and more complete digestive action of the 
gastric juice. 

Barley is an excellent food for horses, but is not generally 
used because of its greater value for malting. Its husk 



398 FEEDIIfG ANIMALS. 

is some 25 per cent, less than oats, and is, therefore, not 
quite so healthy a food to be given alone and unground, 
but when ground and mixed with cut and moistened 
clover-hay, makes a desirable ration for young or mature 
horses. 

Rye is of greater weight per bushel, has 60 per cent, less 
husk than oats, but has also a less percentage of albumi- 
noids than the latter, and also more carbo-hydrates and a 
slightly lower nutritive ratio, but when ground and mixed 
with cut hay makes a healthy and appropriate ration. Eye 
is not now so largely used as horse food as formerly, owing 
to its extra price for distilling. 

Millet-meal is a highly appropriate food for young or 
mature horses. It has a higher proportion of albuminoids 
and a higher nutritive ratio than oats, but having less 
oil. It is found, when well ground (and it cannot projDerly 
be fed without grinding), to be one of the ^best rations for 
horses, being particularly adapted to the development of 
muscular strength. 

Peas contain more than double the digestible albumi- 
noids of oats and more than a hundred per cent, higher 
nutritive ratio. Like English bean-meal, our pea-meal is 
considered the strongest horse food. It has a somewhat 
constipating effect upon the digestive organs; and it is 
therefore advisable to mix 8 bushels of peas with 8 bushels 
of Indian corn and one bushel of flax-seed, and grind all 
together. The flax-seed counteracts the constipating effect 
of the peas ; and the mixture has a slightly higher nutri- 
tive ratio than oats. The author has fed this ration witli 
much satisfaction. The combination of food elements is 
admirable, and the flavor is well relished by horses. 

The Vetch is very similar in chemical constitution to 
peas, and it may be used in about the same combination 
as a ration. This crop has not been raised as much in 
this country as its importance demands. It is probably 



FEEDING HORSES. 399 

as siire a crop iu the Northern and Western States as 
peas. 

The rule in feeding should be to use as many of these 
different foods as can be easily obtained. Where three of 
these different foods are in stock — one may be fed one week, 
another the next, alternating regularly. If the feeder has 
never tried it, he will be surprised to find how eager the 
horse is for the change. Some regard it better to give one 
food two days, and another the next two, and so on. This 
latter is probably the best way. Another way is to grind 
the three foods together, and then each will enter into 
every ration. But this is not quite so tempting to the 
appetite, as the flavor is the same at every meal. We have 
dwelt, at some length, upon this matter of change of food, 
but it is a vital point in the practice of the skillful feeder, 
and cannot be too closely studied. 

The colt, whether intended for fast or heavy work, 
should be handled at frequent intervals through all the 
period of growth. The old theory, so insisted upon by 
some, is that the colt will have more spirit if it is allowed 
to run wild, without handling, till three or four years old. 
It will evidently be more difficult to break, and, for a long 
time, if not always, less obedient to the will of man, than 
if handled, as it should be, from two weeks old. Is an 
animal less able to exert his ]30wer at the will of man that 
has learned to have implicit confidence in him, than if he 
has run wild, and having little or no confidence in man? 
There is no foundation in the theory whatever, but the 
exact opposite is the fact. There is much to be gained by 
controlling the colt through all stages of its growth. But 
there should be no roughness in handling him. The colt 
should be accustomed to grooming from an early age, and 
it should learn to depend upon man for the supply of its 
wants and to regard him as its best friend. 



4('0O FEEDING ANIMALS. 



CHAPTER XI. 

SHEEP. 

Sheep husbandry is destined to assume very great im- 
portance in this country. It appears to be the industry 
which cannot produce a supply equal to the demand. 
There is no probability of our ever growing much wool for 
export. The wants of our population in clothing will even 
more than keep pace with our wool production. But it is 
to be hoped that, with our constantly expanding territory 
suited to the production of wool and mutton, we may, 
within a short period, be able to supply most of the wool 
now imported. It is the one home market never yet sup- 
plied, and thus has the advantage of most other agricul- 
tural industries, of a customer unsought. In dairying, 
beef-growing, whe^it-growing, and cultivating swine pro- 
ducts, we sedulously stimulate the foreign demand ; but in 
wool-growing our last fleece is sought at our own door. 
We are improving so rapidly the machinery for manufact- 
uring the best cassimeres, broadcloths, and Brussels, "Wilton 
and Axminster carpets, that our wools bring better prices 
to the grower than those of any other country. We have 
cheaper lands, cheaper foods, and as good a climate for 
sheep-growing, as can be found ; and all we need beyond 
these to compete with all the world in wool production is a 
knowledge of the business equal to our facilities. Here, as 
elsewhere, we must study the whole business, understand 
and utilize all its details. Simple wool-growing cannot be 
maintained in any country where land has any considerable 



FEEDING SHEEP. 401 

value. To breed and feed sheep simply for the wool is 
little better than raising wheat for the straw — the more val- 
uable half goes to waste. As civilization has advanced, 
and the processes of agriculture have been improved, one 
country after another has ceased to grow wool for itself 
alone — mutton has become the principal, and wool the in- 
cident of the business. This transition was accomplished 
in England first ; but France is moving on steadily to the 
same point. England did it by improving the Leicester 
Cotswold and Southdown mutton sheep. France has been 
gradually doing it by transforming the Merino into a mut- 
ton breed, by an improved system of feeding. This was based 
upon the true physiological principles of animal growth. 
At the breeding establishment of Eambouillet, the last 
century has witnessed an almost complete transformation 
of the Merino — from the small-bodied, short-fibered, thin- 
fleshed, slow-maturing animal of the past, has come a larger 
size, a little coarser and longer fibre, a heavier carcass, and 
a heavier fleece ; one more ready to take on flesh, and much 
earlier in maturing. The best-fed American Merinos are 
tending in the same direction. They are animals of much 
better formed bodies, longer staple, heavier fleece, earlier 
maturity, and better flavored flesh than the originals im- 
ported. The French are also testing the English Leicester 
and Cotswold cross upon the Merino, to hasten the trans- 
formation to a mutton carcass. The tendency everywhere 
is to utilize the flesh in the best possible way. It must not 
be supposed that this transformation has reduced the quan- 
tity or, materially, the quality of the wool. The quantity 
has been very materially increased, as well as its aggregate 
value ; so that the wool interest is not injured by this new 
zeal in favor of the mutton. Good feeding improves the 
coat, wheth-er it be hair or wool — note the favorable effect 
upon the hair of well-fed cattle, compared to those poorly 
fed, and also upon the wool of well-fed and poorly-fed 
sheep. 



402 FEEDING ANIMALS. 

Profit in sheep husbandry means the most generous and 
judicious feeding and care, carried out in every part of the 
system. When this is done, so far from sheep being un- 
profitable upon our higher-priced lands, it is doubtful if 
any other animal pays so well. In England, it has been 
said that, on lands worth three to five hundred dollars per 
acre, fertility can be more profitably kept up with sheep 
tluin any other stock. Dairy stock, for instance, carry off" 
much more in the milk alone than sheep in all ways, be- 
sides taking as much to build the bones and grow their 
bodies. The waste of phosphates is much more rapid in 
dairying than sheep husbandry. If, then, sheep may be 
fed to profit in England on land worth four hundred dollars 
per acre, we should not be deterred from sheep-feeding on 
lands worth $50 to 1150 per acre. England is considered 
peculiarly a beef-eating country ; but yet the best mutton 
brmgs a higher price than beef. Our large cities and man- 
ufacturing towns are constantly increasing their demand 
for good mutton,- and this demand is likely to increase as 
fast as the production. If we should feed as large a num- 
ber of sheep per hundred acres in the Middle and Eastern 
States as does Great Britain, the desire for emigration from 
these States to more fertile lands of the West would soon 
cease. 

Sheep Feeding in New Jersey. 

New Jersey, lying nearly equally distant between the two 
largest cities of the country, where populations of over two 
millions are fed, has accomplished more in feeding for mut- 
ton than any other State. Yet all feeding stuffs are per- 
haps higher in this State than any othei". The fact, there- 
fore, that sheep may here be fed at a profit, shows how the 
same system might be very widely extended to other States 
in the vicinity, as the cost of feeding and transportation, 
combined, would be even less. On farms that need reno- 
vation, sheep feeding is most desirable, because, properly 



FEEDING SHEEP. 403 

conducted, it will pay for purchased graiu, and in this way 
the manure will be made very rich, and the refertilization 
progress rapidly. 

The metliod of procedure in New Jersey has largely 
been as follows: The flock of ewes are changed yearly. 
They are selected in August or September, for their thrii'ty 
breeding condition, from flocks reaching that State or New 
York City from Ohio or Pennsylvania, and some from Can- 
ada. They are purchased at a wide range, from $3 to $6 
per head ; are placed upon fresh pastures in the early fall, 
and if thin, furnished cooling wheat middlings to start 
thrift during mild weather. They are served by South- 
down rams, and fed well during winter, usually upon corn, 
oats and middlings. It is not attempted to fatten them, as 
that would heat their blood unfavorably; yet they must be 
kept in fine thrifty condition, that their lambs may come 
strong, and the ewes yield abundance of milk. These 
lambs are pushed, and sold ofl" in May and June. The 
fleeces of the mothers are sold early, and they fed heavily, 
and fattened for sale early in summer. So the transaction 
of the August previous in the purchase of the flock is 
closed out about the 1st of July, and all completed before 
the end of the year. The best feeders reckon that from $6 
to $10 are received per head for feed and care, and a large 
amount of valuable manure obtained for the growth of 
grain crops. These ewes are usually grade Merinos ; and 
the lambs produced by a cross of Southdown are found to 
feed much better, and bring extra prices in the early 
market. This system has some important points to recom- 
mend it — that the food used is all made active in producing 
an immediate result, and nothing wasted on keeping up the 
vital organism during a storing period. It is all used either 
to fatten the lambs or faiten the mothers, and the sheep 
are passed into market, and the cash realized, before dis- 
ease brings its hazards. 



404 FEEDING AlsriMALS. 

This system is also followed, to some extent, in portions 
of Southern New York, and the adjacent parts of Penn- 
sylvania ; and when a good lot of ewes can be obtained, the 
best management is generally successful. But this, how- 
ever, is the mere factitious part of sheep husbandry. It is 
making the best of a bad system carried on by others, who 
do not know how properly to dispose of the sheep they 
raise. These ewes are raised under a very defective system 
of feeding, and are not so thrifty and disposed to early ma- 
turity as they would be if reared under a better system ; 
and it is only by a Southdown cross (or perhaps a Cotswold) 
that good early lambs can be raised for market. Yet these 
ewes are benefited by raising these lambs under a better 
system of feeding, and make very fair carcasses of mutton 
themselves after this preparation. They have been fed so' 
sparingly all their previous lives^ that it takes a few months, 
under good feeding, to induce a thrifty and healthy state 
of the secretions preparatory to fattening. This state of 
sheep-feeding is in the same condition that cattle-feeding 
was a few years ago, when the store cattle were raised by 
one class of farmers, and fattened for beef by another ; and 
this is still the practice in many parts of the country ; but 
it is quite different from that complete system of sheep- 
feeding to be established in the future, in which the lambs 
will never pass from the hands of the feeder until sold to 
the butcher or shipper. Then uniformity of practice may 
be established, and the animal receive such food and care 
every day of its life as to produce the best result under the 
system adopted. 

The old system of slow growth and late maturity has 
been abandoned by the most progressive feeders of all 
classes of animals intended for food, and the better one of 
full-feeding, rapid growth, and early maturity adopted in- 
stead. There is no class of animals to which this improved 
system may be applied with greater profit than sheep. 



PBBDrNG SHEEP. 405 

The Double Income. 

It is important in all branches of industry to consider 
the sources of income, and their availability at short 
periods. Sheep afford two annual incomes — lambs and 
wool — and they are usually about equal in value. The 
experiments of Sir J. B. Lawes, in reference to the per- 
centage of food utilized or stored up by different animals, 
presented the sheep in a very favorable light. Of the dry 
food consumed, he found that sheep stored up in increased 
weight 12 per cent., while cattle only laid up in increased 
weight 8 per cent.; that is S% lbs. of dry food increased the 
live weight of sheep as much as 12K lbs. the live weight of 
cattle. So that, relying upon these experiments, sheep must 
be considered as excellent utilizers of food, as producing as 
many pounds of mutton, besides the wool, from a given 
quantity of food, as can be produced of beef; and as the 
best mutton brings as high a price as the best beef, it would 
appear, on this basis, that sheep would give the fleece as 
extra profit over cattle. If this is not too favorable a view, 
then sheep on suitable lands must be considered among the 
most profitable of farm stoclv. It is true the dairy cow 
brings her profitable flow of milk to offset the yield of wool ; 
but the dairy cow does not lay on flesh while producing 
milk, as does the sheep, while producing wool. A fleece of 
five pounds of wool, grown in a year, requires only a daily 
growth of 1-5 of an ounce, which can take but a small por- 
tion of food to produce. The mineral matter taken from 
the soil by the fleece is only 1.6 ounces per year; and if six 
half-mutton sheep rej^ resent a cow, the whole mineral con- 
stituents taken by the six fleeces would only be 9.6 oz., and 
about 1.9 lbs. of nitrogen ; whilst the ordinary cow, yield- 
ing 4,000 lbs. of milk, would take 26 lbs. of mineral matter 
or ash, and 25 lbs. of nitrogen, or 43 times as much mineral 
matter, and 13 times as much nitrogen as the fleeces of the 
sheep. But this is not considering all the elements of 



406 FEEDING ANIMALS. 

waste in feeding sheep. Let us suppose the six ewe sheep 
Avill cany off in growing bone and muscle, or in supplying 
the waste of bone and muscle, as much as in growing the 
fleece ; and besides this, let us suppose that these six ewes 
raise five lambs, of 40 lbs. live weight each. This 200 lbs. 
live weight of fat lambs would contain of dry matter 87.4 
lbs., containing 3.9 lbs. of nitrogen and 5.9 lbs. of mineral 
matter. This would give an aggregate of 7.2 lbs. of min- 
eral matter, and 7.7 lbs. of nitrogen, as the waste from six 
ewes and their five lambs, which is less tlian one-third of 
the waste of mineral matter and nitrogen from the milk of 
a cow. The six ewes and five lambs will consume more 
food than a cow ; but all that is stored up and carried off is 
less than one-third as much as in the milk. This, then, 
explains the Spanish proverb, ''the sheep's foot is golden"; 
that it brings improvement, and not depletion of the soil. 
This double income from the fleece and the lambs may 
be certainly respectable without counting high figures. 
The fieeces, at a moderate average price, would bring $13.50, 
and the lambs, at a low figure, 120, or $33.50 as the income 
of the six ewes. 

Early Matueity. 

"When the production of lambs, mutton, and wool is 
carried on under a regular system, and the breeding ewes 
are reared by an experienced breeder, whether they be of a 
fixed type — such as the Southdown, Shropshire Down, 
Cotswold, Leicester, etc., or a cross of one of these ui^on 
grade Merinos, or a mixture of common blood — the breeder 
knows that the best care and feeding for a few generations 
will greatly influence their early maturity, and consequently 
the profit to be derived from them. There is probably no 
animal more plastic in the hands of a skillful feeder than 
the sheep. By the cross of a thoroughbred male upon 
selected common ewes, and the best of feeding, even the 
first generation will show a decided change in the period of 



EARLY MATURITY. 407 

maturity, making a larger growth, and showing a fuller 
development in 13 months than the dams had shown in 18 
months. The next cross will show also a great improve- 
ment on the first. And here time is the great element of 
success. As we have seen in the growth of animals, if the 
gain in weight can be doubled in a given time, the cost is 
not doubled, for, after the food of support, all the extra 
food digested and assimilated is laid up in increase. If it 
requires two-thirds of an ordinary ration to support the 
animal without gain, and if a certain ration would increase 
the weight of a sheep 1% lbs. per week, then if one-third 
addition to this ration was equally well-digested and assim- 
ilated, the sheep would gain three pounds per. week — a 
saving of two-thirds of the cost in the increased growth. 
Then, to double the growth in a given time, reduces the 
cost of the whole growth one-third, and this one-third gain 
in profit is a good margin. 

Let us illustrate this in the growth of early lambs. 
Under scanty feeding — that is, the ewe being insufficiently 
fed to yield a good flow of milk — -the lamb would make a 
slow growth of about 1}4 lbs. per week, and would weigh 
about 21 lbs. at three months old. If, on the other hand, 
the ewe is a fair milker, and is fed one-third extra food 
adapted to produce milk, the extra milk will double the 
Aveight of the lamb, reaching 40 lbs. at three months. The 
significance of this double growth is not measured by 
doubling the value of the lamb, however ; for the 40-lb. 
lanlb often brings, in April and May, $10 in our best mar- 
kets, while the 20-lb. lamb would scarcely bring $3. 
Doubling the weight often trebles the value, or more. The 
yearling wether that weighs 150 lbs. will sell for more than 
double the price of the one that weighs 80 to 100 lbs.; so 
that the more rapid growth means not only one-third less 
cost, but double the value. This is a decided encourage- 
ment both ways for good feeding. Early maturity — that is, 



408 PEEDiiilG AKIMALS. 

tlie even, healthy, rapid development of the young animal, 
is the great tiling to be striven for in sheep feeding, as in 
every other department of feeding which is to fit animals 
for human food. This holds good in both the vegetable 
and animal Avorld. It is the tender, juicy, crisp radish and 
asparagus that tempt the appetite, and these must be grown 
rapidly to reach this degree of excellence. It is also the 
tender, juicy, high-flavored meat that fills our desires for 
that food ; and this, like the vegetable, must be grown or 
matured rapidly. This matter of early maturity is of the 
highest consideration in any system of profitable meat pro- 
duction. 

We must consider the present stage of sheep-feeding 
when conducted for the production of mutton, as in a 
transition state — the feeders simply endeavoring to graft 
upon the old system of wool-raising, a better system of fat- 
tening. But we wish to discuss a system of sheep hus- 
bandry adapted to our older States, which shall be complete 
and harmonious in all its parts, and conducted as a regular 
business from year to year ; the flock being bred and handled 
by the farmer through all its stages, until the carcass goes 
to the butcher and the wool to the manufacturer. It should 
be carried on as systematically as the best dairying, every 
part of the business being carefully considered. 

SELECTIOISr OF SHEEP FOR BREEDING. 

The plan of our work does not include a discussion of 
the philosophy of breeding, but it is necessary to consider 
the style of sheep to feed for a particular purpose. As we 
endeavored to show, the wool alone does not afford an ade- 
quate object for feeding sheep in States where land has 
any considerable value, and it therefore follows that a system 
of sheep husbandry adapted to the older States must deal 
with sheep fitted for the production of mutton — that mutton 
must be the first consideration and wool the second. 



SELECTION OP SHEEP. 409 

With this object in view, some one of the mutton breeds 
must be selected, either for pure breeding or to cross upon 
the Merino or grade sheep. The latter must, of necessity, 
be the plan adopted, since there are not pure-bred sheep 
enough to be had within any practicable limit of price to 
set up any large number of flocks. It is therefore evident 
that we must breed our mutton sheep from the materials at 
our command, and we certainly have a pretty extensive 
variety of material upon which to engraft the Down, Lei- 
cester, or Cotswold blood. 

If our breeders will follow the wise erxample of Bakewell, 
in reference to the style of sheep to be improved, it will 
much hasten their progress. In Bakewell's time, Leicester 
sheep were long-legged, rough-boned sheej), greatly wanting 
in symmetry of form. He started out with the sound 
principle that the largest proportion of the value of the 
sheep was in its mutton, and he had also observed that the 
medium-sized, comjjact, and symmetrically-formed sheep 
took on flesh much more readily than the larger and 
rougher specimens. He therefore .selected from various 
flocks the most evenly and symmetrically-developed animals 
he could find, that showed the greatest aptitude to fatten, 
and that he thought would produce the largest proportion 
of valuable meat, and the least amount of offal. Having 
made his selections, he carefully studied the peculiarities of 
the individual animals from which 'he bred, and never hesi- 
tated to discard those that did not come up to his ideal. It 
is true he selected all his animals from the old Leicester 
blood, and that he did not scruple to breed those together 
that were related, but the animals bred were selected for 
their strong points of adaptation to each other. 

Breeders of to-day may select on the same princijjle as 

did Bakewell, choosing the medium-sized ewes and those 

having the most even development, from the grade Merinos 

or the common bloods, and crossing upon these a good 

18 



410 FEEDING ANIMALS. 

Down, Leicester or Cotswold ram. But, as in Bakewell's 
case, the selection of the best must continue, and the 
defective be constantly weeded out. In-and-in breeding 
produced no evil effects in his case, because he constantly 
coupled such males and females as tended to remedy the 
defects that existed on either side. This mode of selection 
resulted in the most remarkable improvement in the Leices- 
ter sheep as a meat-producing animal that has ever occurred 
in the history of breeding. The change in external appear- 
ance of the old and new Leicesters was so great as to be 
regarded by some as*a new variety of sheep, and led many 
to suppose that Bakewell had crossed different breeds in 
producing the result ; but this is clearly disproved. There 
can, however, be no doubt tliat if our sheep-breeders will 
make such selections of ewes as we have indicated, and 
proceed to cross one of these fixed breeds of mutton-sheep 
upon them, continuing with males from the same strain of 
blood, the result, in a few generations, will be an extremely 
uniform animal ; , and then males may be selected from the 
same flock. Our readers must not suppose this to be an 
expensive plan of improving a flock. The ewes may be 
selected at a mere trifle above ordinary price. A Leicester, 
Southdown, or Cotswold ram can be purchased or leased 
at a small sum. 

The outlay above purchasing an ordinary flock need not 
exceed $50 to $100, if a start is made with from 25 to 50 
ewes. If such a system of breeding should be multiplied 
to any considerable extent, it would also produce a class of 
ram-breeders, as it has in England ; and the system of ram- 
letting would also be here introduced, which has many 
advantages, for this would enable the breeder to select a 
ram from a considerable number, and he could change the 
ram as often as he found advantageous. The result of 
crossing the Southdown and Cotswold rams upon grade 
Merinos has been so well tested in this country as to be 



SUMMER FEEDING OF SMALL FLOCKS. 411 

no longer regarded as an experiment. The progeny are 
found to feed nearly as well as the full blood, and the 
improvement on the first generation is considered a full 
return for the expense. The next generation approximates 
still closer to the type of the male, and, of course, the cost 
of this system of breeding becomes less and less the longer 
it is continued. There is no loss upon those discarded as 
breeders, for they pay their full cost when sent to the 
butcher. The temptation to keep defective animals for 
breeding will not exist in this case .as in the case of pure 
breeding, for the value of the animal will be measured by 
its value for mutton and wool. There is nothing sacrificed 
here, either in carcass or fleece, for the mode of improving 
the one will also improve the other. The Merino blood 
will improve the wool, and the Cotswold blood will improve 
the meat. 

Summer Feedikg of Small Flocks. 

There has been a great deal of speculation as to all the 
minutias of Bakewell's methods of breeding, and many 
contrary opinions entertained, but little has ever been said 
or curiosity manifested as to Bakewell's mode of feeding. 
All his success was attributed to some occult system of 
breeding, and they neglected to inquire into one of 
the principal causes of his success — his system of feed- 
ing. His principles of breeding brought him a sym- 
metrical animal, but improved feeding was absolutely 
necessary to develop it. This point seems to be well 
established in regard to his system. He sought to develop 
a sheep that should produce the largest amount of meat 
for a given amount of food. This hint shows that tlio 
question of food, or economy of production, was the point 
he sought to solve, which shows, further, that his system 
was complete, and not a mere half system, as it must have 
been had he provided merely for improved breeding, treat- 



412 FEEDIN^G ANIMALS. 

ing with indifference the question of developing the animal 
when bred. 

It is unfortunate that Balcewell, with all his philosophical 
ideas upon breeding and growing animals, was not large- 
hearted and pliilanthropic enough to desire that his im- 
provements should be perpetuated for the benefit of his 
countrymen. But so far from this, he neither put pen to 
pajjer, nor did he disclose his system in conversation with 
his most intimate friends. They could see the result of 
his work, and from this infer his system, but he kept his 
methods and the details of his experiments wholly to him- 
self. Perhaps we should not judge him harshly because 
liis countrymen, who have conjectured as to his system 
and lauded the result, have never criticised his selfish 
secretiveness, but treated it as a natural thing to expect. 
This grows out of the different social education of the 
people of England and the United States. Here a citizen 
feels that he owes something to the public welfare, and 
takes a pride in promoting it ; but the hereditary govern- 
ment appears to prevent the development of public spirit, 
and leaves the individual to think only of his private 
welfare. 

A thorough exposition of Bakewell's practical system, 
and the careful details of all his experiments, would have 
been worth millions to his countrymen, as well as to the 
breeders of other countries. But the world -must be con- 
tent with the great good that has resulted from the 
distribution of tli^ improved Leicester sheep, and the 
stimulus given by these to the improvement of other 
breeds. 

We desire to show, somewhat in detail, the application 
of sheep husbandry to the wants of agriculture in our 
oldest settled States. Here, under the principles discussed, 
the sheep will bring the recuperation of the soil, renew its 
capacity for grain crops, and bring back the old-time thrift 



HUEDLE-FEEDIlirG. 413 

to the OAvners of half a million of farms. If we suppose 
New York, with its 20,000,000 of acres in grass or culti- 
vated crops, to maintain one sheep to four acres, it would 
give her 5,000,000 of sheep — a very moderate number to be 
carried upon her acres, yet 3.3 times the number she now 
keejDS, This would give her an average of 25 sheep to each 
100 acres of improved land — a number that might easily 
be kept without disturbing her other industries. A small 
flock of sheep will bring into use neglected spots and fence 
corners, will turn to account the gleanings of grain fields, 
and consume many things not so well relished by cattle. 

Hurdle-Feeding. 

The question of fences, which has come to involve a very 
large expense, and would be an insuperable obstacle to 
sheep-keeping, if farms were t© be fenced into small fields 
in order to use all the neglected forage, is solved by the 
use of hurdles. Movable hurdle fence is quite necessary to 
the proper use of all the fields upon a fiirm for any class of 
stock, and especially for sheep. Fifty to 100 rods of 
movable fence will be of the greatest service ujaon all 
farms. By using the hurdle, any piece of aftergrowth or 
stubble may be inclosed in a few minutes, and the sheep or 
other animals confined, and the hurdles may be moved 
over the field till every part of it is eaten and turned into 
flesh and wool. This will have a double advantage — 
turning the green food into money and killing weeds. 
The portable or rolling hurdle is most convenient, as it is 
placed so quickly, and rolled along day by day to supply 
fresh herbage ; and its additional cost is but slight. The 
celebrated Mechi used an iron hurdle, placed upon wheels, 
which he recommended highly because of its great 
durability, having been in use upon his farm for more 
than thirty years. His hurdle was too expensive for our 
ideas of economy, being 86.50 per rod. Yet he seemed to 



414 FEEDING AlSriMALS. 

regard it as cheap, considering its great utility. "We 
invented a hurdle, made of wrought iron, well adapted to 
the needs of small flocks in this country, and which we do 
not describe, because we were unable to reduce its price 
below 15 per rod. But as yet the ordinary wooden hurdle 
is the only one obtainable. Such a movable hurdle would 
remove the most formidable obstacle to keeping small 
flocks upon almost every farm. Let us here note the 
important results which might follow from the intro- 
duction of such small flocks of sheep upon the so-called 
worn-out farms of the older States. It often becomes very 
diflficult to seed down these long-cultivated fields without a 
very large application of manure, which cannot be had. 
With an easy means of confining sheep upon any such field 
or portion of field, the fertilizer required for its renovation 
could cheaply be manufactured upon the spot. By plow- 
ing this field and sowing thickly with oats to be fed ofl" by 
sheeiD, and placing a few racks on one side of the field, into 
which green food grown elsewhere upon the farm can be 
placed, and then also feeding a small grain ration, which 
will be repaid twice over in the growth of the sheep, the 
field becomes fertilized by the droppings of the sheep 
evenly distributed over the field. This experiment has 
often been tried, keeping an accurate account of purchased 
grain ; and the increased value of the sheep has not only 
paid for the grain, but amply for the labor, leaving the 
fertilization of the field as a clear profit. It should 
always be a prime consideration in feeding sheep for market 
to do as much as possible of it in warm weather. And, if 
they are kept till January or February, still the feed should 
be very generous in the fall, that they may be fat enough 
for the butcher at the beginning of cold weather. It will 
then cost but little to carry them to the later period in fine 
mutton condition, so that this grain ration, given upon 
the poor fields, will be profitable, considered only in refer- 



COMPEKSATIOIf POR FOOD IN MANURE. 415 

ence to the progress of the sheep. A small grain ration in 
September and October, on green food, will push them 
faster than a large one in cold weather. 

When sheep are fed upon land needing such fertilization 
there is the greatest inducement to be liberal in the ration, 
as an important result is obtamed without any real expense. 
It is also important that such extra food should be chosen 
as will leave the most valuable fertilizer upon the land. 
And in this connection it will be well for the American 
farmer to become better acquainted with linseed oil-cake 
and decorticated cotton-seed cake. These foods contain a 
large proportion of oil for fattening, and also a very large 
proportion of nitrogen, as well as the important mineral 
constituents of phosphate of lime, potash, etc. By feeding 
these cakes the animals not only progress rapidly, but the 
droppings are much more valuable than when on corn 
alone. For summer feeding, as here mentioned, M lb. of 
oil-cake and M lb. of corn (or, better, wheat bran) to each 
sheep will be the most valuable ration. 

As I am now illustrating sheep-feeding as adapted to the 
long-cultivated lauds of the older States that have become 
less fertile for want of proper stock husbandry, it will be 
necessary to a full discussion that we should consider 
somewhat accurately the 

OOMPENSATIOIsr FOR FoOD IN MANURE. 

It is important that the feeder should understand the 
quantity of manure produced for a given quantity of food 
consumed by the stock he feeds, so that he may be able to 
know the return to be expected from this source. The 
amount of manure produced from a given quantity of food 
is greater for the sheep than the pig ; but this arises mostly 
from the greater digestibility of the food of the pig than 
that of the sheep. 

In estimating the value of the manure made by animals. 



416 FEEDING AKIMALS. 

only the nitrogenous and ash constituents of the food are 
considered, as the carbonaceous elements are supplied by 
the atmosphere. We must also have some basis for deter- 
mining the proportion or amount of food elements to be 
found in the manure. If there is no growth nor increase 
in the live weight of the animal, and no milk produced, 
then the amount of nitrogen and ash constituents passed 
into the manure must be equal to these elements contained 
in the food; because the albuminoids and mineral elements 
of the food used to build up the waste of the system, or for 
the renovation of tissue, must be equal to these elements 
broken down and passed o2 by the degradation of the 
tissue; so that the same amount of valuable elements 
contained in the food will be found in the manure. But 
when the body is increasing in weight, or milk is produced, 
then the albuminoids and mineral elements required to 
form this increase of body or the milk, must be deducted 
from these elements in the food consumed. A part of the 
nitrogenous and mineral elements of the food is left undi- 
gested in passing through the alimentary canal, and this is 
found in the solid excrement. What is digested of the 
nitrogenous and ash constituents passes into the blood, and 
is converted into animal increase, or milk, if the animal is 
increasing in weight, or yielding milk, and the balance of 
these constituents are separated from the blood by the 
kidneys, and are passed in the form of urine. These 
albuminoids are oxydized into urea before they are ex- 
pelled from the system. Hippuric acid is also found in 
the urine of herbivorous animals. 

We find the proportion of albuminoids that will appear 
in the solid excrement by deducting the percentage of 
digestible albuminoids from the whole amount. Dr. Wolff's 
late experiments with sheep and other animals, show that 
sheep digest of the various elements of certain foods as 
given in the following table : 



COMPELS ATIOK FOR FOOD IN MANURE. 



417 



Experiments with Sheep. 
Table No. 1. 



. 


Pkoportion of Percentage oj 
Constituent Digested. 


Each 


Food. 


•2 33 

s a. 

O C" 


■6 
o 
a 

G 

3 

< 




6 

■2"? 


9 


Pasture grass 

Meadow hay (.very good) 

^leadow hay (ordinary) 


75.8 
64.7 
58.7 
59.1 
73.9 
89.6 
88.5 

75.8 
64.3 
57.5 
59.0 
51.0 
46.0 
50.0 
80.0 


73.3 
66.6 
57.2 

73.8 
85.5 
87.1 
78.5 

73.3 
72.1 
55.5 
55.0 
38.0 
20.0 
51.0 
84.0 


65.4 
54.5 
44.3 
29.7 
84.8 
84.3 
84.6 

65.4 
51.6 
43.3 
56.0 
30.0 
36.0 
55.0 
90 


75.7 
65.6 
58.7 
67.9 
77.7 
91.2 
91.3 

75.7 
61.9 
55.7 
56.0 
43.0 
39.0 
60.0 
78.0 


79.5 
63.5 
59.8 
43.6 


Oats 


26.1 




78.5 




61.9 


Grass cut at difTerent dates— 
Mav 14th 


79.5 


June 9lh 


65.7 


June 26th 


61 1 




44 




61.0 




56 




36.0 











It will be seen that there is a steady change in the digest- 
ibility of grass cut at different periods. The grass cut 
May 14th had 75.8 per cent, digestible matter; while the 
same grass cut June 26th had only 57.5 per cent, diges- 
tible. Other experiments have shown the same difference 
in the digestibility of clover cut before blossoming, while 
in blossom, and after blossoming. This table should be 
well studied, as a lesson on the proper time to cut grass for 
hay. The percentage digestible of any constituent is called 
by Dr. Wolff its " digestion co-efficient." From this it is 
easy to determine what proportion of nitrogen passes into 
the solid and liquid excrement. 

Suppose we take oats: 85.5 is its "digestion co-efficient"; 
that is, this is the percentage of the albuminoids of oats 
that is digestible by sheep, and therefore the indigestible 



418 



FEEDING ANIMALS. 



14.5 per cent, of the albuminods of oats ^ill pass into the 
solid excrement. The digestible part will pass into the 
blood; and if the sheep are not increasing in weight, or 
suckling lambs, 85.5 per cent, of the albuminoids will j)ass 
in the urine, so that all the nitrogen received in the food 
will be voided in the solid and liquid excrement. But if 
the animals are full-fed and are increasing in weight, then 
the increase will reduce the quantity of manurial constitu- 
ents in the excrement. From the German tables of exper- 
iments, it is estimated that the following percentages are 
stored up and voided as excrements when fed on barley- 
meal. 

Nitrogen Stored up and Voided for 100 Consumed. 
Table No. 2. 



Sheep 
Oxen 
Pigs . . 



Stored up as 
increase. 



4.3 
3.9 

14.7 



Voided as 
solid ex- 
crement. 



16.7 
23.6 
21.0 



Voided as 
liquid ex- 
crement. 



79.0 
73.5 
64.3 



In total ex- 
crement. 



95.7 
96.1 
85.3 



Ash Constituents Stored up and Voided for 100 Consumed. 
Table No. 3. 



Animals. 



stored up as 
iucrease. 



Voided in total 
excrement. 



Sheep 
Oxen . 
Pigs . 



3.8 
2.3 
4.5 



96.2 
97.7 
95.5 



An examination of these tables will show, in the case of 
fattening sheep, what proportion of the valuable elements 
of" the food are returned to the soil, or may be returned, to 
prevent exhaustion. Over 95 per cent, of the nitrogen and 
ash constituents are voided in the excrement in the cases of 



COMPENSATION FOR FOOD IN MANURE. 



419 



gheep and oxen. This shows a very small waste of the fer- 
tilizing matter of food in fattening sheep. 

The following table will show the composition of solid 
and liquid excrement of sheep fed on hay : 



Table No. 4. 





Solid Excrement. 


Urine. 




Fresh. 


Dry. 


Fresh. | Dry. 


Water 


66.2 

30.3 

3.5 

0.7 


89!6 
10.4 

2.0 


85.7 
8.7 
5.6 

1.4 




Organic matter 

Ash 


61.0 
39 




9.6 







It will be seen that the solid and liquid excrements, even 
when the sheep are fed upon hay, are rich in both nitrogen 
and ash constituents, as a ton of the solid would contain 
1-4 lbs. of nitrogen, and a ton of liquid 28 lbs. of nitrogen ; 
at 18 cents per lb., the first would be worth 12.53, and the 
second $5.04 per 2,000 lbs., in the ordinary wet state. 

That the reader may see the relative value of various 
foods, and how much they differ, depending on the propor- 
tion of nitrogen and the ash constituents, we give Table 
No. 5, containing many of the most common foods, 
and giving the nitrogen, potash, and phosphoric acid in 
1,000 parts. 

This table shows how much of each valuable constituent 
is contained in each of these different foods; and anyone 
can calculate the value of a ton, by multiplying the pounds 
of nitrogen, potash, and phosphoric acid by the price of 
each in the market. Nitrogen is usually estimated at 18 
cents per pound, potash at 8 cents, and phosphoric acid at 
12 cents per pound. The figures in this table give the 
amounts of these elements in 1,000 pounds of each food, 
when of good quality, and all is saved. If 90 to 95 per 
cent, of these fertilizing constituents of food could be 



420 



FEEDING ANIMALS. 



actually saved by farmers and returned to tlie soil, then it 
is easy to see the effect that must be produced by Judicious 
stock-feeding upon the depleted soils of the New England 
and Middle States. 



Table No. 5. 



Poods. 



u 






(S 








a 










a 


M 




>. 


u 










o 


» 


P-. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


900 


66.0 


15.0? 


885 


39.0 


20.1 


900 


48 


13.2 


880 


45.0 


14.7 


905 


36.0 


12.3 


930 


25.0 


5.5 


903 


59.8 


17.0 


885 


47 8 


22.0 


901 


44.7 


27.6 


863 


52.2 


17.7 


897 


55.9 


26 8 


855 


41.0 


12.0 


857 


36.0 


9.8 


905 


38. 


19.5 


8G5 


22 


14.8 


870 


20.6 


4.5 


856 


18.8 


5.4 


860 


17.0 


4.9 


886 


16.6 


3.6 


840 


1.9.7 


19.5 


857 


15.5 


16.8 


840 


10.0 


25.9 


857 


4.8 


5.8 


850 


5.0 


9.7 


830 


5 


10.4 


250 


3.4 


5.6 


115 


1.9 


3.9 


107 


2.4 


2 


142 


1.6 


3.2 


83 


1.8 


2.9 



•S.2 
1^ 



Cotton-seed cake (decorticated) ... 
Cotton-seed cake (undecorticated) 

Rape-cake 

Linseed-cake 

Linseed (flax-seed) 

Palm-meal 

Linseed-meal (extracted) 

Poppy-seed cake 

He;np-seed cake 

Walnut-cake 

Sunflo wei--seed cake 

Beans 

Peas , 

Malt sprouts 

Wheat-bran 

Oats 

Wheat 

Barley . 

Maize 

Clover-hay 

Meadow hay , 

Bean-straw 

Wheat-straw 

Barley-straw , . 

Oat-straw 

Potatoes 

Mangolds 

Swedes 

Carrots 

Turnips 



lbs. 

31.2 

22.9 

24.6 

19.6 

15.4 

12.2 

25.6 

40 

37.6 

23.4 

35.4 

11.6 

8.8 

17.2 

32.3 

6.2 

8.0 

7.3 

6.1 

5.6 

3.8 

4.1 

2.6 

2.0 

2.5 

1.8 

7 

0.6 

1.0 

0.6 



It will be noted that clover-hay is more valuable than 
any of the cereals as manure; and common meadow hay 
has a value above corn-meal. If the nitrogen, potash and 
phosphoric acid are estimated at the usual commercial 
value, then wheat bran, malt sprouts, linseed-meal, and 
many of the richer feeding stuffs, are worth all they cost as 
fertilizers. Wheat bran figures at $18 per ton ; malt sprouts 
at 620.80 ; linseed-meal at $30.48 ; cotton seed (decorticated) 



VALUE OF EXCREMENT. 421 

at $33.64. These prices may be beyond the real money 
value ; but it shows the intelligent feeder what foods he 
may buy with safety, expecting to get back the cost of them 
in growth, and increased weight in fattening, besides get- 
ting a large return in the manure. 

Value of Solid akd Liquid Excrement. 

We must study most carefully the proportionate value of 
the solid and liquid manure. Table 4 shows the propor- 
tionate amount of nitrogen found in the solid and liquid 
excrement, and the amount is seen to be three to four times 
as much in the urine as in the solid excrement. The 
amount voided in the urine will depend very much upon 
the digestibility of the food, for only what is digestible and 
soluble can pass in the urine. But when the farmer be- 
comes aware that considerably more than half of the fertil- 
izing matter of manure is to be found in the urine, he will 
begin to consider his means of saving this most important 
part of the excrement. Not only is more than half of all 
the fertilizing matter of animal excrement found in the 
urine, but this is much the more valuable, according to 
quantity, as this is all soluble, and becomes immediate and 
active plant food ; while much of that in the solid excrement 
requires time for decomposition before becoming food for 
plants. The solubility of the fertilizing matter in urine 
renders it so much more difficult to preserve from loss. It 
is liable to be exhaled or evaporated in the sun, washed 
away by rains, absorbed by the earth under the manure 
pile, and temporarily lost in a great variety of ways when 
the manure is kept in the ordinary careless manner. 

The great effect of the proper application and saving of 
all the liquid excrement is seen in the English custom of 
feeding off crops with sheep. It appears quite evident that 
this mode of application greatly increases the effect over 
that of applying the manure made from the same amount 



422 FEEDING ANIMALS. 

of food in yard or stall, when the manure is thrown into the 
yard. When a crop is thus fed off upon the land, or when 
other food is brought and fed upon a field, during cool or 
damp weather, all droppings are saved, and all urine is at 
once absorbed by the soil, and stored as plant food — noth- 
ing is lost. It is in such applications of nuiuure that we 
may see an effect to warrant the prices mentioned for the 
fertilizing constituents of foods. 

Sheep are the best animals for making an even dis- 
tribution over the soil of the fertilizing ingredients of 
excrement. 

An Experiment. 

To test the comparative effect of feeding a definite quan- 
tity of food to sheep upon the land, or applying the ma- 
nure made by sheep in winter under a shed, from the same 
kind of food, the author confined 50 large sheep between 
hurdles, upon 25 rods of ground, for three days, commenc- 
ing early in June, and feeding each sheep 20 lbs. per day of 
green clover, cut before blossoming, in racks; and the parts 
of stalks not eaten at first were fed each day in troughs, 
with M lb. of corn-meal and a pinch of salt, to each sheej), 
spread over them. Thus treated, the clover was all eaten. 
At the end of three days, they were moved along upon an 
equal space adjoining; so 'that each rod of land received 
the droppings from 120 lbs. of green clover and 4K lbs. of 
corn-meal in six days. This was equal to 4.06 lbs. of dry 
food to each sheep per day — the clover having 83 per cent. 
of water — each rod thus receiving the excrement from 24.36 
lbs. of dry food ; or an acre received 3,264 lbs. of dry clover, 
and 633 lbs. of dry substance of corn-meal. This would 
yield, approximately, in the excrement 90 lbs. of nitrogen, 
84 lbs. of potash, and 22 lbs. of phosphoric acid to the 
acre. The sheep were moved until one acre had been gone 
over. The land had been in oats the i)revious year, with- 
out manure, and not seeded. Fifty sheeji, of about the 



VALUE OF MANUKE. 423 

same weight, had been fed under a close shed for 30 days of 
the previous winter upon clover cut and cured in good 
order, before blossoming, with one pound of corn per head, 
per day. 200 lbs. of clover-hay were fed each day, or 4 lbs. 
per head. The shed was bedded four inches deep with cut 
straw before the feeding began. The clover was eaten uji 
closely. Here were fed 6,000 lbs. of clover-hay, or 5,160 
lbs. of dry clover, and 1,500 lbs. of corn, or 1,296 lbs., de- 
ducting water. Placing this upon one acre, it gives the 
excrement of 40.34 lbs. of dry substance of food to the rod; 
or it will give to the acre 130 lbs. of nitrogen, 119 lbs. of 
potash, and 40 lbs. of phosphoric acid, not counting the 
cut straAv used for bedding. It is proper to state, that the 
sheep fed upon the green clover gained 3M lbs. per head, 
per week, while those in the shed only gained 2% lbs. per 
week. 

The experiment to show the effect of the manure was 
conducted thus : When the acre was fed over with sheep 
to clover and corn-meal, this acre was plowed, June 21st, 
five inches deep, preparatory for winter wheat ; and the 
manure from the shed was hauled upon the adjoining acre, 
and this was plowed to the same depth. About the 20th 
of July each acre was plowed again six inches deep, and 
afterwards thoroughly worked with cultivator and harrow, 
and wheat drilled in August 25th. Grass-seed was sown 
with the wheat. Eesult: The acre fertilized by feeding 
clover and corn-meal upon it yielded 30 bushels of wheat, 
the acre with the shed manure 25 bushels. The grass crops 
which followed were considerably better upon the former 
acre for two successive years, after which the difference was 
not perceptible. 

This experiment showed very strongly in favor of feeding 
the animals upon the land to be fertilized. We may say, 
however, that when applying fresh the excrement of ani- 
mals taken from a water-tight receptacle, where both solid 



424 FEEDTKG AKIMALS. 

aud liquid were completely preserved, we found the effect 
quite equal to feeding upon the laud. We have, therefore, 
adopted a water-tight receptacle under the platform on 
which our cattle stand in winter, and cows, during night, 
in summer, and the excrement is hauled fresh to the field, 
thereby preserving all its fertilizing elements. 

Sheep on Woest-out Lakds. 

We have illustrated this matter of the return for the 
food in the value of the manure at considerable length, be- 
cause it has a strong bearing upon the profits of sheep 
husbandry in the older States. At most of the agricultu- 
ral discussions in Massachusetts, Connecticut, Vermont, 
New Hampshire, and in some of the Middle States, the great 
complaint is that their agriculture is in a state of decay, 
their farms are deteriorating — the product being less year 
by year. In the first two States named, many of the farms, 
once profitable, are abandoned, as having no agricultural 
value, although these farms are near the best markets of the 
country. These farms are mostly upland, that had a fair 
natural fertility ; but by long cropping, and little return of 
the drafts made upon them, have ceased to respond to labor 
so improvidently bestowed. There must be reciprocity in 
agriculture as in other matters. The great law of equiva- 
lence is here enforced — something for something. 

It is evident that a regular system of mutton and wool- 
growing upon such lands would very soon produce an im- 
provement, and that these lauds might profitably be 
brought back to their original fertility, and to a much 
higher market value than they have ever held. Sheep-hus- 
bandry takes the preference of dairy-husbandry for this jjur- 
pose: First, because the competition in the latter is much 
greater; in fact, there is properly no competition in sheep- 
liusbandry in this country; for the whole product of wool 
is much less than the home demand, aud good mutton is 



VALUE OF MANUKE. 425 

far from an overstocked market ; secondly, because mutton 
and wool-growing, as Ave have seen, make a much smaller 
draft upon the soil than dairy husbandry, and may return 
to the soil, under a proper system, 95 per cent, of the fertil- 
izing matter of all the feeding stuffs used. 

These deteriorated lands may, therefore, be rapidly im- 
23roved by feeding to sheep the richer foods mentioned in 
our tables, with a return in growth and fattening of sheep 
equal to the cost of the food, and, at least, 80 per cent, of 
its cost returned in effective fertilizers to tlie soil. Nitro- 
gen, potash, and phosphoric acid can be furnished to the 
soil in this way at fifty per cent, of the commercial cost of 
these fertilizers. And another important point is seen in 
the fact that the standard of quality in these foods can much 
more easily be determined than that in commercial fertil- 
izers. When one ton or ten tons of decorticated cotton-seed 
meal, linseed meal, malt sprouts, wheat bran, corn-meal, or 
ofeher food, is fed to sheep upon the land, you may deter- 
mine, quite accurately, the amount of each of these impor- 
tant food elements added to the soil ; but when you apply 
a ton of commercial fertilizer, purchased at the full value 
of a proper standard, the ordinary farmer knows very little 
of what he really adds to the soil. Under a proper system 
of feeding, the sheep farmer can scarcely err in applying 
fertilizers to his soil which are obtained by passing rich 
foods through the digestive system of his sheep. This will 
be a chemical analysis and determination which he may 
rely upon for accuracy. 

Feedin"G Green Crops on the Land. 

This return made by sheep for their food, m manure, 
based as it is upon reliable German experiments, is most 
encouraging to those who would feed sheep for the recovery 
of fertility. This result follows in feeding off large crops 
grown upon the land, such as turnip, or other root crop. 



436 PEEDING AKIMALS. 

clover, yetclies, rye, oats and peas, peas alone, the different 
varieties of millet, and many other green crops. The clover, 
vetches, rye, oats, peas, millet, etc., may be fed over several 
times in a season ; as, if fed off when a few inches high, 
each of these crops will spring up again, on good land, like 
pasture grasses. This point is worthy of close considera- 
tion in feeding for the renovation of worn-out lands in the 
Eastern States; for some of these crops maybe raised upon 
most lands, and thus furnish green pasturage for sheep; 
and if fed off within hurdles, in a manner to confine the 
sheep upon small spaces, the extra grain food will produce 
an immediate result in improving the second or future 
growth of the green croj). These portable hurdles are 
easily moved, and the sheep may be passed on to fresh 
ground each day, not allowing them to eat the green crop 
too close. In this way the land may be made to furnish the 
green food for summer, to be cropped off the ground, saving 
all labor of feeding, except that of moving the hurdles, 
and distributing a certain quantity of linseed meal, corn or 
other gram in troughs, daily, for each sheep. This labor 
could not exceed one-half hour per day for fifty sheep. Let 
us now consider the crops that may be fed off green by 
sheep. 

WiN^TER Eye. 

A crop of winter rye would succeed for this purpose prob- 
ably better than most other crops, and might be fed off, 
successively, for the whole season, and then furnish pasture, 
or mature a crop, the second season. It does better for pas- 
turing than cutting for soiling, for which it is often used ; 
because in pasturing it will be kept cropped off too low for 
the seed panicle to start, and thus keep up a constant 
growth, whilst in soiling it is seldom cut before some of the 
seed-heads are formed, and these plants will not grow again, 
and, therefore, the second cutting will be small, compared 
to the first. Rye furnishes a good pasturing crop, also ; 



GKEEN CROPS FOR SHEEP. 427 

because, being sown in the fall, it gets well-rooted, and 
when pastured early in the spring, starts up again at once. 
If the soil is in such heart as to grow a good crop of rye, 
it will furnish a large amount of sheep pasturage — six acres 
may be fed over continually by 50 sheep during the whole 
season. As soon as they have passed over the field between 
hurdles, they may be brought back to the starting point, 
and go over it again. It is evident that, if each of the 
sheep are given four ounces of linseed-meal, and the same 
amount of Indian corn, per day, during the season, although 
light feed, this six acres will be qualified for raising a good 
grain-crop the following season, and that the gain in the 
sheep will pay for this extra food, with a good margin for 
other expenses. Liebig has stated that rye, when cut often 
during the first year,- will mature a crop the following year, 
and it is reasonable to suppose that, if properly pastured, it 
will also continue through the following seasons, which 
must render it a favorite crop for feeding off on the land, 
as it must give pasture one-third longer than a spring crop. 

Winter Vetch. 

The vetch has not been so thoroughly tried in the United 
States as it deserves, as, where it succeeds, it has many 
qualities to recommend it; but having been raised in Can- 
ada, north of Montreal, at latitude 46, over a belt of terri- 
tory from Lake Erie of more than two hundred miles, it is 
reasonable to infer that it is suitable for the territory of 
this country from New York to Oregon — that it has proba- 
bly nearly as wide a range as clover ; in fact, Nuttall enu- 
merates some five species of the vetch as natives of the 
United States, some being identical with those found in 
Europe — as the Vi'cia sylvatica, growing on the borders of 
woods, and banks of the Missouri river ; the Vicia crocea, 
growing in a wild state in bushy meadows, and sometimes 
troublesome in gardens in Pennsylvania and other Middle 



428 PEEDIFG ANIMALS. 

States. He also enumerates Vicia sativa, the most valua- 
ble species grown by English farmers. So that there can 
be little doubt that the vetch, or tare, can be profitably 
grown in all the Eastern, Middle and Western States. 

English farmers regard the vetch as only second to clover, 
because of its nutritiousness, and the relish with which all 
kinds of stock eat it, as well as because of its easy cultiva- 
tion. It is the favorite crop of the sheep-farmer for feed- 
ing off on the land ; and, like clover, Avill furnish pasturage 
upon which sheep maybe folded, at successive periods, dur- 
ing the whole season. 

For this purpose the winter vetch is chosen, because, being 
established over winter, the roots ramify more extensively, 
and produce a larger amount of fodder than the spring- 
vetch, and it has been found, on several tests, to be more 
nutritious per weight. This winter vetch would be even 
better for bringing forward sheep and lambs in summer 
than winter rye, because it is much richer in albuminoids. 
Dr, Voelcker found the green food to contain 82.16 per cent, 
water; 3.56 albuminoids; 12.74 carbo-hydrates and fat, 
and 1.54 per cent, ash ; and, when deprived of water, it con- 
tained 20 per cent, albuminoids — thus being richer than 
clover. It possesses all the elements, in due proportion, for 
growing lambs and fattening sheep. This food, being so 
rich in nitrogen, it might be fed with Indian corn to better 
effect in bringing up a worn soil than rye or millet. It is 
often grown upou nhe heavy clay loams in England; and a 
rich clay loam will' produce maximum crops. 

It will readily be seen what an important agency this 
crop may become, when fed off by sheep, in recovering the 
worn farms of New England and the Middle States. It is 
not better, with the same weight of crop, than clover for 
this purpose; but can be grown upon land where it is dif- 
ficult to seed to clover, and this crop may be the means of 
fitting the land for the growth of clover. Eye is the easiest 



GREEK CEOPS FOR SHEEP. 429 

crop to begin with, which, being fed off by sheep, with the 
addition of linseed-meal and oats, corn, or some nitrogen- 
ous food, the land would be well-prepared for the winter 
vetch, and the winter vetch would prepare it for clover, and 
clover would prepare it for any crop. The land need not 
be plowed more than 4>2 to 5 inches deep for vetches ; but 
should be worked into a very fine tilth before the seed is 
drilled in, at the rate of two bushels per acre. The time 
for seeding is the same as for wheat. 

The spring vetcli is also much grown in Europe, and may 
be grown in this country where spring grain succeeds better 
than winter; but the spring vetch should be planted as 
early as the condition of the soil will permit. A frost 
occurring after the seed is sown will not injure the plant 
any more than it does the pea. On early land, the spring 
vetch may be brought forward so as to furnish pasture early 
in June ; but care must be taken not to feed it close, as 
this will much retard its future growth. 

Peas as a Pasture Crop. 

As we are considering what crops may be grown for 
feeding sheep in summer, and at the same time result in 
the improvement of the soil, we must not omit the common 
field pea. This crop has not been adequately appreciated 
as a renovator of the soil. It has been little used as a 
green pasture crop, either in this country or in Europe, 
most of our farmers thinking it only adapted for being cut 
at maturity. But when soAvn thickly upon properly-pre- 
pared land, and fed off at six to eight inches high, it starts 
again immediately, and makes a vigorous new growth, the 
ground being more closely covered the second than the first 
time. This has been our experience on several trials. But 
the sheep must not be permitted to feed it closely, and 
should, therefore, be passed over the ground before thcx 
have time to do this. If the season is favorable, peas may 



430 FEEDING ANIMALS. 

be fed over three times, and thus yield a large amount of 
green food. If the season is likely to be too dry, the 
second feeding should be commenced when the peas are in 
blossom. It has then the largest amount of nutriment, 
and of the best quality. The nutritive ratio of peas, vetches, 
and the clovers, each at the first blossom, is nearly the 
same; they all stand in the first rank of fodder plants, 
especially for growing young animals, as they are all rich in 
the elements to grow the muscles, bones, and nervous 
system. Peas will flourish upon a variety of soils, either 
light or heavy; dry clay soils bring large crops. The land 
does not require to be rich; bat a soil containing abund- 
ance of lime and potash succeeds best. The pea plant is a 
large appropriator of lime and potash, and the seeds of 
potash and phosphoric acid. Land highly manured grows 
more vine than grain ; but lime, wood ashes, and bones are 
quite appropriate fertilizers. The land should be in fine 
tilth and smooth, and peas are best planted with a drill 
which will deposit the seed at an even de2:)th of 214 inches, 
at the rate of 2M bushels per acre. If further practice 
should discourage feeding the pea crop off upon the land, 
then it should be grown and cut green at 'the time of first 
blossom, and fed to sheep between hurdles on parts of the 
same field which have been cut. This will require little 
carriage, and all the valuable manure will be saved ; but we 
think that it will be found practically as safe to feed off 
peas as winter rye. The pea may be planted as early as 
the land can be tilled in spring, as it is not injured by 
frost ; and heavy lands should be plowed in the fall, so as 
to be ready to work as soon as a few inches of the surface 
is dry enough to be made mellow. Peas will furnish 
pasturage for sheep in dry weather the last of May or first 
of June in latitude 40° to 43*^. A variation of this pea 
crop is to sow one-third oats with the peas — that is, two 
bushels of peas and one bushel of oats per acre. This will 



GREEN CROPS FOR SHEEP. 431 

generally produce a larger yield of green food than peas 
alone or oats alone, and the combined crop may be pastured 
as early as peas alone. 

Oats are an important crop for pasturing when sown 
alone. The oat is also frost-proof in the spring, and may 
be drilled in the first moment that the land is fitted for it, 
and, on warm, early soil, will be six inches high and strong 
by May 20th ; and, on being eaten ofi" by the sheep, will 
start anew at once. If left till the seed head is formed, 
there will be no second growth. The struggle in all plants 
is to perfect the seed ; and most of our annual plants, if 
cut when small, will grow again, and when having a strong 
and vigorous root will push on the second growth very 
rapidly. 

The second feeding of the green oat crop should be when 
the plant has reached the flowering stage ; and if the crop 
be rank, sheep may waste too much of it when fed off upon 
the land. If mown and fed to them in racks, it will have 
the largest amount of nutriment when the seed is in the 
milk. But the sheep, at that stage, are not inclined to eat 
the whole stalk unless tempted by a small allowance of 
meal upon the left stems. As we have seen, this extra 
grain food will be refunded by extra growtli, and the land 
will get the benefit of the enriched manure. This is the 
end towards which sheep-feeding on worn lands should 
point. The oat has the advantage of being adapted to 
nearly all soils, and it may be the best crop with which to 
begin the improvement. 

Millet for Pasture. 

Millet is grown in all parts of the country, more or less, 
both for the seed and fodder. It requires dry, warm land 
to produce the best crop, and the soil must be made very 
fine, or the seed, which is small, will not grow. In a fine, 
rich loam millet produces a very large growth of excellent 



432 FEEDING ANIMALS. 

fodder. When the land is appropriate, it springs up 
rapidly, and soon covers the ground. When it reaches the 
height of eight inches, and its root has become well estab- 
lished, sheej? may be folded upon it, and crop oflF four or 
five inches. The hurdles should be moved each day, to 
prevent its being eaten too close. It will spring up anew, 
and more completely cover the ground than before. If 
care is taken it may be folded over three or four times in a 
season, at from 14 to 20 days apart. This food is highly 
relished by sheep, because the leaves and stems, at that 
stage of growth, are very tender and succulent. Small 
pieces may be sown at different times, so as to be ready for 
feeding one after the other. A good crop will produce, at 
three or four feedings, ten tons of green food on an acre, 
and pasture 50 sheep 25 to 30 days. There are several 
varieties of millet, but the common {Panicwn milliaceum), 
Hungarian grass {Panicum Germanicum), and golden mil- 
let are the kinds most grown. The latter produces the 
largest growth, and for pasturing may be found the most 
profitable. 

We have given these numerous annuals which may be 
cultivated as pasture plants for sheej), to show the re- 
sources of sheep feeders in providing green food which may 
be eaten off by the sheep during the summer ; but we do not 
mean to set these annuals up as preferable to the perennial 
grasses and the biennial clovers. These annuals are only to 
be used to assist in fitting the land for growing profitable 
crops of the perennial grasses and clovers. The perennial 
grasses and the clovers are the sheet-anchor of successful 
stock-feeding, for they yield successive crops without 
annual labor. But the annual grasses are often necessary 
in the preparation of the soil for the permanent ones. 

EooTS FOR Sheep-Feeding. 

The question of economy in the production of root crops 
for stock-feeding in this country has never been settled be- 



GSKEK CROPS FOR SHEEP. 433 

yond grave doubts in the minds of judicious farmers. The 
rigor of our northern winter climate is not favorable to 
out-door feeding of roots ; but the modern improvement 
of warm, well-ventilated stables has done much to obviate 
this objection, so far as temperature of stable-feeding is 
concerned. But we cannot adopt the English practice of 
feeding off turnips and beets on the land; yet many of 
the most intelligent English farmers think it much better 
for the sheep to receive their roots in sheds, and that their 
better thrift will pay for lifting and carting the roots. We 
think, for sheep feeding in our northern climate, the most 
profitable use to make of roots is to feed them ofi" on the 
land during October and November, before the weather 
becomes too cold. The turnip and beet may be so matured 
as to be quite ready for feeding in October ; and sheep may 
then be folded upon them, with a little late-growth clover, 
and thus continue succulent food of the best quality to the 
beginning of winter. The comparatively high price of 
labor has usually been regarded as fatal to the profitable 
production of roots here ; but Hon. Harris Lewis, and 
many others, have declared that beets or turnips can be 
raised, lifted, and stored for six cents per bushel ; and at 
this cost of labor they must be profitable food for sheep, 
especially as a small ration of green food in winter. But 
there is a plant, belonging to the same class as turnips and 
cabbages, which is extensively raised in Germany and 
France as a food for stock and as an oil plant. It is a bien- 
nial, and has a spindle-shaped, stringy root, running deep, 
instead of being bulbous, like the turnips, and the value 
of the crop is in its succulent stalks, leaves, and seed. 
This is 

Eape {Brassica napus), 

and is grown upon the same sort of land as turnips, beets, 
etc. Eape has both a winter and spring variety. If the 
Avinter variety can be cultivated here, it will furnish excel- 
19 



434 FEEDING ANIMALS. 

lent and abundant food for sheep and other stock in May, 
June and July. It is so hardy as not to be injured in the 
coldest parts of Germany. Professor Brewer, who exam- 
ined this crop with care in Germany, believed it well 
adapted to the United States, and highly recommends it. 
It seems to have a great superiority over the turnip in fat- 
tening qualities. It is exceedingly succulent, having, in its 
green state, 87 percent, water; albuminoids 3.13, carbo- 
hydrates 8.20, ash 1.60 per cent. When deprived of water, 
it contains 24.19 per cent, of albuminoids; being richer in 
this important element than clover, and twice as I'ich as the 
Swede turnip. The American edition of Johnson's " En- 
cyclopasdia " states that this crop has been tried in New 
York and New England, and found to stand the winters 
well. Mr. Samuel Thorne, of Dutchess County, N. Y., 
writes that, in 1863, he folded lambs upon it very late in 
the fall, and that frost did not injure this plant. It pro- 
duces, under good tillage, extraordinary crops. Mr. Blackie, 
an English writer upon the '' Improvement of Small 
Farms," says that, when well manured, the stalks are juicy, 
and grow to the height of from five to six feet ; and that 
he believes an acre, with the addition of some straw to 
counteract its great succulence, will keep 30 head of milch 
cows in full milk for a month. It is, no doubt, an over- 
estimate, as it would be equivalent to keeping a cow 900 
days on the crop of 160 rods of land, or 180 sheep 30 days 
on an acre, or 33M sheep one day upon one rod of land. 
If we can estimate its capacity to feed cows and sheep at 
one-half these figures, it is an exceedingly desirable crop. 
It is generally regarded in Germany, and in all parts of 
England, as one of the very best crops for fattening sheep ; 
and as it is ready for feeding June and July, or if fed ear- 
lier in spring would give its largest crop later in the season 
— say September — it must prove to be one of the most 
profitable green crop that can be raised, and especially 



GREEN CEOPS FOR SfCEEP. 435 

adapted to the improvement of the land. Its seed has long 
been used for the production of rape oil; and the rape 
cake, so much used by English feeders, is the refuse of the 
seed after the oil has been expressed. Many estimate the 
labor in producing a crop of rape as about the same as that 
required for a crojo of wheat. There can be no doubt of its 
success on the deep rich prairie soils of the West ; and when 
fitock-feeding on these lands shall be conducted for the pur- 
pose of preserving their fertility, as well as for profit, this is 
likely to become one of the most important croj^s. It has 
greatly the advantage of the turnip, beet, or carrot, on ac- 
count of its richness in albuminoids, thus supplementing 
this deficiency in the corn crop, and on account of its easier 
cultivation. Being a deep-rooted plant, it will recover 
very quickly after feeding off by sheep, and soon fur- 
nish a second growth of stalks and leaves for the same 
purpose. It is certainly worthy of a careful trial. 

En'SIlage for Winter Feeding. 

Sheep are extremely fond of succulent food, and one of 
the difficulties encountered by the sheeji-feeders during our 
long winters is the want of a due proportion of green food. 
The recent invention of the improved silo, for the preser- 
vation of green, succulent food for winter use, will wholly 
remedy this defect in winter sheep-feeding. Every descrip- 
tion of green crops may be preserved in silo, for winter 
use ; and as the sheep is particularly fond of variety in its 
food, and will travel over a large field, most industriously 
selecting the greatest variety within its reach, the silo ena- 
bles the feeder to gratify this appetite of the sheep. If a 
large variety of grasses is sown upon our meadows, they 
may all go into the silo together; thus not only gratifying 
the appetite, but greatly adding to the thrift of the sheep. 
All the crops we have mentioned as appropriate for feed- 
ing off upon the land are also appropriate for preserving in 



436 FEEDING ANIMALS. 

silo for winter use. This green food in winter will enable 
the sheep-ftirmer of the older States to make as good 
progress in winter-feeding as tlie sheep-farmers of Europe 
with the aid of succulent roots. The great advantage of 
turnips for sheep in winter is, that they counteract the 
effect of the dry food given. 

A most important consideration in favor of the silo is, 
that the feeder may not only give variety in the ration, but 
he may give a ration containing the proper proportion of 
food elements. The silo has been discussed in this country 
almost wholly as a means of preserving fodder-corn ; but 
as fodder-corn is only a partial food, and must be fed with 
some more nitrogenous food to produce a satisfactory re- 
sult, the silo could only be a very partial success if it only 
preserved this one green food. Its great result must be 
looked for in enabling the feeder to mingle in the silo sev- 
eral different green foods which unitedly contain the food 
elements in the proper proportion for growing or fattening 
animals. As sheep will fatten very fast upon a good pasture 
which contains a variety of the best grasses, so they should 
gain as rapidly when fed from a silo upon green fodder-corn, 
clover, millet, rape, peas, oats, etc. , containing a combination 
of the same food element in as -digestible a condition. It is a 
common opinion among farmers (which we do not wholly 
share), that grain is the most expensive food, and that 
sheep are kept much cheaper upon pasture or hay than 
upon hay and grain. It is only necessary to feed grain 
because hay is less digestible than grass. Now, the silo, if 
successful, will enable sheep to be fed upon grass in as 
succulent a state in winter as in summer. This may 
render the older States, which have reached a diminished 
capacity for grain raising, independent of Western grain 
in the production of meat. These States are still well 
adapted to the production of the grasses and every green 
food required for winter feeding, when preserved in silo ; 



MANAGING A FLOCK. 437 

and as green, succulent food goes much farther than the 
same food dried into hay, so the capacity of these States 
for the production of mutton and other meat will be vastly 
increased. 

Ensilage being nearly as succulent as the fresh green 
food itself, root crops will become much less important. 
When the silo shall come into full use, sheep will really be 
fed the same winter and summer ; and progress in fattening 
will be nearly the same, a little extra food being given in 
the winter, to keep up the animal heat. This succulent 
winter food will have an important effect in improving 
early lambs, causing the ewe to yield more milk; and the 
lambs may make as good progress as if their dams were 
upon pasture. 

Managing a Flock. 

The mode of conducting a breeding flock for profit will 
vary according to locality and cost of food. Near the large 
Eastern markets, and on land upon which sheep are kept 
as the best compensation for the food consumed, the ram 
lambs of the flock will principally be disposed of at a few 
months old, as affording better profit at this than at any 
subsequent period. The forty-pound fat lamb costs less in 
food than any forty pounds of growth added afterwards, 
and brings about three prices per pound. If, then, a flock 
of common ewes is being crossed with a pure-blood South- 
down or Cotswold ram, for the purpose of laying the 
foundation and building up an improved breeding flock, it 
will be profitable to keep only the ewe lambs — grade rams 
should never be kept for breeding, but grade ewes will be 
a great improvement over common ones when bred to a 
ram of the same blood as their sire. So, in grading up a 
flock towards a pure-blood mutton breed, about half of the 
lambs each year may be sold for the early market. Each 
generation will approximate nearer and nearer to the pure 
blood until they are practically equal for mutton or wool. 



438 FEEDING ANIMALS. 

It will be seen that the expense of grading up this flock 
over that of common breeding is hardly worth considering ; 
that, in fact, the ram or wether lambs marketed each year 
will be enhanced in value much more than the cost of the 
pure-blood ram over a common one. But while these ewe 
lambs are growing up to breeding age, the defective ones 
must be weeded out, and not permitted to breed. Only 
those of good form and prime feeders should be kept for 
breeding. The first requisite of a profitable animal is a 
good appetite and active digestion. A habitually mincing 
eater should always be discarded, whatever beauty of ex- 
ternal form it may possess. No profit ever comes from a 
slow feeder. The breeding ewe, if she raises good lambs, 
must secrete a liberal quantity of milk, and this can only 
be done by a large consumption and digestion of food. 
The young ewes should not be bred before 14 to 16 months 
old ; earlier breeding is not conducive to vigor of constitu- 
tion. As the flock increases in numbers, greater care can 
constantly be given to selection of the ewes to be bred — 
breeding always from the best. The third cross will give 
ewes of Ji pure blood, and this can be accomplished in four 
years ; two years more would give || blood ; so that six 
years would grade up common ewes to fifteen-sixteenths 
blood Southdown, Cotswold, or other pure blood. It is 
not, therefore, long to wait for a thoroughly-improved 
flock, which will practically give all the profit of the 
highest blood. Even the half and three-fourths blood 
usually feed about -as well as the higher blood. After the 
fifth cross with pure-blood rams, or thirty-one-thirty- 
second part of the pure blood, the rams of this cross may 
be considered prepotent, and may be used for breeding — 
often even the cross below this will be found prepotent as 
males. The English Short-horn Herd Book admits four 
crosses to record as Short-horns ; and the same rule would 
hold with sheep. But we think breeding together grades 



MANAGING A FLOCK. ^SO 

of low degree tends to bring pure blood into discredit, and 
is unprofitable. 

Regularity in Feeding. 

All feeders who have studied the habits of the animals 
they feed, have discerned that they take special note of 
time, and are disappointed if the time is delayed only a few 
minutes. It is a cardinal point to observe great regularity 
in time and quantity for feeding sheep. It has been 
observed that a careful and regular feeder will produce a 
better result with inferior food, given at equal times and 
in even quantity, than an irregular feeder as to time and 
quantity with the best quality of food. It is said that " the 
master's eye is worth two pair of hands," and it may as 
truly be said that " the shepherd's eye, which takes note of 
the individual wants of his flock, is worth a large amount 
of carelessly-given food." 

The late John Johnston, of Geneva, N. Y., to whom we 
have before alluded as a successful cattle-feeder, has also 
been, under the old system, a successful sheep-feeder. In 
a letter to the Hon. H. S. Randall, in 1863, he describes his 
common mode of winter feeding. Mr. Johnston was a very 
successful wheat and barley raiser upon a 300-acre clay- 
loam farm, completely tile drained. He had large quanti- 
ties of straw, and studied how to turn this into the largest 
quantity of manure. He says : 

'' I generally buy my sheep in October. Then I have a 
pasture to put them on, and they gain a good deal before 
winter sets in. I have generally put them in the yards 
about the 1st of December. For the last 23 years I have 
fed straw the first two or two and a half months, a pound 
of oil-cake, meal, or grain, to each sheep. When I com- 
mence feeding hay, if it is good, early-cut clover, I 
generally reduce the cake, meal, or grain one-half; but 



440 FEEDING ANIMALS. 

that depends on the condition of the sheep. If they are 
not pretty fat, I continue the full-feed of cake, meal, or 
grain, with their clover, and on both they fatten wonder- 
fully fast. This year (18G2-63) I fed buckwheat, a pound 
to each per day — half in the morning and half at 4 p. m. — 
with wheat and barley straw. I found the sheep gained a 
little over one pound each per week. It never was profit- 
able for me to commence fattening lean sheep. Sheep 
should be tolerably fair mutton when yarded. I keep their 
yards and sheds well littered with straw. 

"Last year I only fed straw one month. I fed each 
sheep one pound of buckwheat. From the 20th of October 
to the 1st of March they gained IK lbs. each per week. 
They were Merinos — but not those with the large cravats 
around their necks. I have fed sheep for the Eastern 
markets for more than 30 years, and I always made a profit 
on them, except in 1841-42 ; I then fed at a loss ; and it 
was a tight squeeze in 1860-61 to get their manure for 
profit. Some years I have made largely. Taking all 
together, it has been a good business for me." 

This account of sheep-feeding is on a different plan from 
the one we have been considering, of making it a sys- 
tematic business — the feeder breeding his own sheep. But 
We give it to show what a careful feeder may do on a grain 
farm to keep up its fertility. Mr. Johnston's gains per 
week are small besides those we shall give of feeding the 
mutton breeds ; but his results are remarkable, considering 
the fact that the sheep he bought were those of slow 
growth and late maturity. His success in winter-feeding 
on that plan was largely owing to his custom of buying in 
October, and giving them good pasture for some two 
mouths. His straw-feeding would also have been much 
less successful had he not fed oil-cake with it. The very 
nitrogenous oil-cake balanced the carbonaceous straw, and 
this oil-cake greatly enriched the manure. 



managing a flock. 441 

English Sheep-Feeding. 

Sheep husbandry has become so important an element of 
our agriculture, that the American shepherd should make 
a careful study of the methods of feeding adopted in other 
countries where this branch of husbandry is successfully 
carried on. In growing mutton and wool together, Eng- 
land has been pre-eminently successful, and her method of 
feeding must be well considered. It is hardly to be ex- 
pected that the American feeder can use precisely the same 
crops as the English farmer to feed liis flocks ; but he may, 
at least, find substitutes which are better suited to our soil 
and climate, and have the same nutritive value. We shall 
give some of the best-authenticated experiments of English 
feeders, that may serve to give a clear idea of their plan of 
winter feeding — a period attended with more obstacles 
than any other, as the summer produces Nature's best 
ration for sheep — the grasses. 

EXPEEIMENTS WITH EOOTS, GeAIN AND GrASS. 

The experiments recorded in Mr. Robert Smith's essay 
on "The Management of Sheep" — for which the Eoyal 
Agricultural Society granted him a prize in 1847 — are full 
and carefully made, and represent the effect of the most 
commonly adopted ration, and many important variations 
of it. 

Experiment 1. — Eight lambs were weighed on. the 20th 
December, 1842, and placed upon turnip land to consume 
the turnips on the field where they grew ; and being 
supplied with all the cut swedes they would eat, were 
found to consume, on an average, 2o% lbs. per head, per 
day. They were again weighed April 3d (15 weeks), and 
gained 25K lbs. each. 

Ex. 2. — Same day, eight lambs were placed in a grass 
paddock, under same regulations, and found to consume 



442 FEEDING AKIMALS. 

19 lbs. of turnips per day, and gained, in 15 weeks, 26M 
lbs. each. 

Ex. 3. — Same day, eight lambs were placed alongside 
No. 2, and allowed to run in and out of an open shed 
during the day, but were shut up at night. They had half 
a pound of mixed oil-cake and peas per day, and ate 
besides 203^ lbs. of turnips, and gained 33^ lbs. each. 

Ex. 4. — Same day, eight lambs were placed under same 
conditions as No. 3, but supplied with one pound of mixed 
grain (oats, barley, beans) per day. They consumed, during 
the ten following weeks, 20 lbs. turnips per day; were 
weighed February 28th, and had gained 26K lbs., average. 

Ex. 5. — Eight lambs were placed in a warm paddock, 
with a shed, during the day, but were shut up during 18 
hours, and fed upon IH lbs. of mixed grain per day. They 
consumed 18K lbs. of turnips each, and in ten weeks 
gained doK lbs. each. 

Ex. 6. — January 5, 1843, sixteen shearlings were equally 
divided — eight placed in a grass paddock, and given each 
one pound of mixed grain per day, ate 24 lbs. of Swedish 
turnips, and gained, in eight weeks, 213^ lbs. each. 

Ex. 7. — The other eight shearlings were placed along- 
side No. 6, were allowed an open shed during the day, and 
were shut in at night, had one pound of mixed grain, 
consumed 203^ lbs. of turnips, and gained, in eight weeks, 
24 lbs. each. 

Ex. 8. — On the 3d of April, eight lambs (No. 3) were 
weighed and placed: upon young clover, and supplied with 
half a pound of mixed grain, as before. They ate also 12 
lbs. of turnips per day; and, on the 1st day of May, had 
gained IIM lbs. each — having had a shed during the day, 
and being shut up at night. 

Ex. 9.— On the 29th of May, the eight lambs (No. 8) 
were again weighed, having been allowed, as before, half a 
pound of mixed grain upon the clover, but no turnips, 



MANAGING A FLOCK. 443 

with shed to run under at will. They gained 16 lbs. each 
during the month. 

To prove the effect of less heating food in hot weather, 
he placed the two lots of shearlings (Nos. 6 and 7) upon 
moderate growth of clover, July 1, 1843. 

Ex. 10. — The eight shearlings (No. 6), being weighed, 
were allowed one pint of peas per day, and again weighed 
at the end of 21 days ; had gained 9M lbs. each. 

Ex. 11. — The eight shearlings (No. 7) being also weighed, 
were given one pint of old beans, and, at the end of 21 
days, had gained 6 lbs. each ; the beans proving to be a 
too heating food, and the sheep eating them being found 
to be getting humors, even in this short time, while those 
fed upon peas were looking very healthy. This is a very 
doubtful criticism upon the heating qualities of beans and 
peas, since, as the percentage of carbo-hydrates and oil is 
about the same in both, the heating qualities must be the 
same. 

Desiring to test the qualities of the various vegetables in 
the fall, he divided 30 lambs into equal lots of 10 each, on 
the 2d of October, 1843, and placed them upon overeaten 
stubble fields (which the English call "seeds"). To each 
were fed different vegetables by an experienced shepherd. 

Ex. 12. — Ten lambs, fed upon cut, white turnips, were 
Aveighed again November 13th (six weeks), and had gained 
an average of 11 lbs. each. 

Ex. 13. — Ten lambs, fed on cut swedes, gained, during 
the six weeks, 11 lbs. each. 

Ex. 14. — Ten lambs, fed on cut cabbage, gained, during 
the time, 16K lbs. each ; showing that, at this season, 
cabbage is superior to turnips ; but as cold weather came 
on, he found the value of the Avhite turnip and the cab- 
bage grew less, and the swedes improved. This is owing, 
no doubt, to the larger percentage of water in cabbage and 
AV'hite turnips, which is unfavorable in cold weather. 



444 FEEDING ANIMALS. 

To test grass land, in comparison with cole-seed (a species 
of rape or cabbage) and cabbage, in the autumn of 1844 he 
put ten lambs upon each, on the 14th of October. 

Ex. 15. — Ten lambs penned upon green, cole-seed (rape), 
with out clover chaff, gained, in one month, 12% lbs. each. 

Ex. 16. — Ten lambs, penned on drum-head cabbage, with 
cut clover chaff, gained lOM lbs. each in one month. 

Ex. 17. — Ten lambs, upon grass, and fed upon cut swedes 
and cabbage, in equal quantities, with clover chaff, gained 
9M pounds each. 

Ex. 18. — Ten lambs upon grass, and fed upon cut white 
turnips and cabbage, in equal parts, with clover chaff, 
gained 11 lbs. each. 

To test carrots, as against swedes, he fed No. 16 all the 
swedes they would eat, and No. 17 all the carrots they 
would eat. 

Ex. 19. — Ten lambs, fed upon cut swedes and clover 
chaff, were found to have gained, in one month, 10 lbs. 
' each, and had eaten 22 lbs. of turnips per day. 

Ex. 20. — Ten lambs, fed upon cut carrots and clover 
chaff, gained, in the month, 9M lbs. each, and had eaten 
223^ lbs. of caiTots per day. 

It will be noted that the ten lambs upon green rape 
gained more than those upon swedes and cabbages. This 
series of experiments very well represents the feeding of 
lambs with roots, grain, grass, etc.; but it has not gone 
much into the use of oil-cake, and has not given the 
results in feeding older sheep. 

Feeding Young Lambs. 

We will now give a series of somewhat different experi- 
ments, representing the lambs at an earlier age with their 
dams. This is from Mr. T. E. Pawlett's essay, which was 
highly commended by the Koyal Agricultural Society of 
England. His views are based upon a long-continued 



MANAGING A FLOCK. 445 

habit of weighing his sheep and lambs every month, alive, 

so that his statements are based upon actual figures, like 

those just given. 

He gives, preliminarily, the average gain he has had in 

lambs during the year commencing soon after birth. In 

small lots he has found the gain as follows : 

Young lambs in month of 

April 9 lbs. 

May 16 " 

June 18 " 

July 15 " 

August 13 *' 

September 12 *' 

October 12 " 

November 8 " 

December 6 " 

January 5 " 

February 7 " 

March 10 " 

In 12 months, gain in live weight 130 " 

Mr. P. fed, altogether, Leicesters, and he says the above 
weights were often very much exceeded. 

American feeders may not have a very clear idea of the 
weight of swede turnips that lambs and other sheep will 
eat per day. Mr. P. says an ewe lamb-hog (one unshorn) 
will eat of cut swedes, in the month of February : 

Per day 18 lbs. 

A wether lamb-hog 20 " 

A ram lamh-hog 23 " 

A shearling wether 22 " 

A feeding or breeding ewe 84 " 

A sucking ewe 28 " 

A ram above two years old 30 " 

if no other food but cut swedes is given them ; but warm 
weather will reduce the amount about one-fourth. If graiu 
or oil-cake, or any other dry food is given, they will con- 
sume less turnips in proportion to the amount given. 

Experiment 1. — In March, 1845, he selected 12 ewes and 
lambs from the flock, and divided into lots of equal quality 
and weight. Six were fed entirely on clover-hay chaff, of 
which each ate 243^ lbs. per week, at a cost of 21 cts.; and 



446 FEEDING AXIMALS. 

the Other six were fed each 16dH lbs. of swedes, costing 17 
cts., and '2H pecks of beans, worth 14 cts., amounting to 31 
cts. per week each. At the end of a month the lambs of 
the ewes fed on clover chaff alone looked the most thriving. 

£x. 2. — Twelve ewes and lambs were again selected and 
divided, and fed for two weeks, the lambs being weighed. 
Six were fed on 9 lbs. of bran daily and 15 lbs. of clover 
chaff, costing for each sheep 26 cts. per week; and the 
other six were fed upon clover chaff alone, as before, cost- 
ing '21 cts. — the lambs of the former gained, in 14 days, 6 
lbs. and those of the latter 4,^^ lbs. This difference of IH 
lbs. live weight Mr. P. regards as costing all it comes to in 
the 5 cts. extra for bran. 

To test the comparative value of clover and trefoil, as 
against vetches or tares, he selected 14 lambs Avith their 
dams, weighed the lambs and divided them equally by 
weight and number. 

Ex. 3. — Seven of these dams and lambs were placed upon 
clover and trefoil, and the other seven upon vetches. The 
seven on clover and trefoil gained r20 lbs. each. Those on 
vetches, 16M lbs. each. 

Ex. 4. — He selected ewes and lambs, weighed and divided 
them on the middle of May, folded one-half in the clover 
field, and fed with cut mangold- wurzel and a little hay 
chaff; their lambs ran through the hurdles on a good 
pasture of red clover. The other lot were left at large on 
white clover and trefoil, their lambs also ran on a good 
piece of red clover, and both lots of lambs had a small 
quantity of peas. At the end of 38 days the lambs of the 
ewes fed on mangolds had gained 21 lbs., the other lot, 
IS lbs. 

Here is a most remarkable gain shown of 21 lbs. in 28 
days, or over 5 lbs. per lamb per week. 

£x. 5. — June 10th, 10 lambs were weaned and weighed 
alive, put on red clover, with some vetches and beans. On 



MANAGHifG A FLOCK. 447 

the same day xO lambs were weighed, remaining with their 
dams on white clover and trefoil, but allowed to run 
through the hurdles upon good red clover. 

At the end of 33 days the unweaned lambs had gained 
17 lbs., and the weaned, 16K lbs. each. Another experi- 
ment with 12 lambs weaned and VZ unweaned, showed the 
former to have gained in a month 21 lbs., and the latter 
20^ lbs., showing the gain about equal ; but Mr. P. 
remarks that those weaned early wintered best. 

Bx. 7. — Two lots of lambs were woighed November 19th. 
To the one was given cut swedes with clover-hay chaff and 
malt sprouts mixed ; and the other lot, cut swedes only. 
In two months the former gained 14K lbs., and the latter 
8 lbs. each, making GH lbs. in favor of dry food. 

Ex. 8. — Another experiment of a similar character was 
tried with eight lambs each, February 18th.* The one was 
fed with cut swedes and 2 lbs. of clover chaff and 2 lbs. of 
bran, the others on swedes alone. At the end of one 
month the former had gained 7M lbs. and the latter 3M 
lbs. each. 

Here the gain is nearly double with the dry food, and 
this is no doubt owing to the temperature. 

Ux. 9. — Eight lambs were fed upon cabbages and white 
turnips in October, with a half-pint of linseed to each, and 
a like number were fed upon cabbages, white turnips and 
clover chaff, as much as they would eat. The former 
gained, in one month, 16 lbs., and the latter 16 lbs. 

Here the clover chaff balances the half-pint of linseed. 
One of its most important offices is to absorb the extra 
amount of water in the cabbage and turnips. Mr. P. 
appears to be opposed to feeding sheep in yards ; but he 
thought he would try it again, and on the 4th of December 
he put some of his best lambs into a warm, well-sheltered 
yard, with a high shed to feed under, well littered with 
fresh straw, and fed them, as usual, on swedes and grain. 



448 FEEDING ANIMALS. 

These were weighed as against a like number fed eight 
weeks in a turnip field : 

Those in field gained each 13 lbs. 

Those in yard only gained each 3 " 

Apparent balance against yard feeding 10 " 

He remarks: ''These lambs did not appear to like the 
confinement, and took every opportunity of getting out if 
they could." The reader will compare this with experi- 
ments three, five, and seven of the first series, where the 
shed appeared to increase the gain decidedly. The expla- 
nation is probably to be found in the strict confinement, 
which so changed the habits of the lambs as to unfavorably 
affect their health. 

The American feeder, in looking over these experiments, 
will note the favorable effect of a little grain with the 
turnip ration. The turnip is a very watery plant; and 
although a moderate amount of succulence is very con- 
ducive to health and animal growth, yet to compel lambs 
to take their entire food diluted with 87 to 90 per cent, 
water is not appropriate, except in the warm season ; and 
even then dry food as a part of the ration is an improve- 
ment. In experiment No. 5, on IM lbs. of mixed grain 
with 18K lbs. turnips, the lambs gained as much in 10 
weeks as those in experiment 3 did in 15 weeks on }4, lb. of 
oil-cake and peas with 20% lbs. of turnips ; and in these 
two experiments the shelter was the same and only propor- 
tions of the food changed. 

It has always t)een our strong belief that English feeders 
are in error in feeding more than 10 lbs. of turnips to a 
lamb, and the balance of the ration should be made up of 
early cut and cured clover-hay, tares, rape, or fine grasses, 
and grain, or oil-cake, or a mixture. ExiDeriments 8 and 
9 prove that 12 lbs of turnips on very young and succulent 
clover (No. 8), with % lb. of grain, produced less gain per 
month (IIM lbs.) than when omitted (No. 9, where the 



GERMAN EXPERIMENTS. 449 

clover and grain produced 16 lbs. gain). The actual nutri- 
ment in 20 to 23 pounds of turnips is only equal to 3 lbs. 
of Indian corn. And when we take into consideration the 
amount of extra water that must be exhaled and evapo- 
rated from the body in the excessive use of turnips as a 
food in moderately cold weather, it is highly probable that 
23 lbs. of turnips scarcely represents in heat and fat- 
forming power, 3 lbs. of corn. This would make a bushel 
of corn balance 429 pounds of turnips, or an acre of corn, 
at 40 bushels per acre, would equal 8% tons of 2,000 pounds 
of turnips; and, counting the corn at 25 cents per bushel, 
as it averages over large districts of the West, it would give 
but $1.18 per ton for the turnips, and $2.36 when corn is 
50 cts. per bushel. This last price would equal 6 cents per 
bushel — a price for which some American farmers say 
turnips or beets can be raised. But this comparison will 
show that turnips cannot compete with Indian corn when 
the latter can be purchased at 25 cts. per bushel. Yet the 
real value of turnips, as a food preservative of animal 
health and growth, is higher than that given here. Ten 
pounds of turnips with 1}4 lbs. of corn will fatten a young 
sheep or lamb faster than 3 lbs. of corn alone. The 
English ration of turnips or other roots for both sheep and 
cattle is quite excessive, and would be more profitable if 
divided and the same value in grain fed for the other half. 
The succulent root crop, fed in moderate quantity, is the 
basis of successful winter-feeding of sheep in England, and 
may yet be widely adopted in this country, unless the silo 
shall preserve better green food at a less price, where the 
price of corn ranges from 40 to 75 cts. per bushel. 

German Experiments in Sheep-Feeding. 

We will now give some German experiments — the first 
conducted by Dr. Wolfi" m feeding two common lambs for 
9 months, from 5 to 14 months old. These lambs were fed 



450 



FEEDING ANIMALS. 



upon hay, oats, and oil-cake. The hay during the first two 
periods was early-cut and nicely-cured meadow hay, and 
during the other periods was aftermath. The following 
table gives the amount of food, gain, etc. : 







'3 




Digested. 


o 










0) 






to 




j^ 


en 






*j 


b 


Period. 


5 

o 

B 


ID 

1^ 


■a 
<2 


"2 
O 

a 




2 
6 


o 
> 


r3 
a 








c3 
O 








"3 


"a 




< 


< 


H 


< 


fe 


o 


izi 


O 






lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 




lbs. 


1 


5-6 


59.7 


1.99 


0.21 


0.08 


0.97 


5.6 


0.26 


2 


6-8 


70.7 


2.03 


0.24 


0.08 


1.02 


5.1 


0.24 


3 


8-9 


78.9 


1.91 


0.21 


0.10 


0.92 


5.6 


0.07 


4 


9-12 
13-14 


84.8 
95.8 


1.82 
1.76 


0.19 
0.19 


0.06 
0.08 


0.91 
0.89 


5.6 
5.7 


12 


5 


19 







It appears from the above table that the daily gain in the 
first two periods was very uniform, in the third period fell 
off 73 per cent., in tlie fourth period was 50 per cent, of the 
second, and in the fifth period increased 50 per cent, over 
the fourth. This experiment, although it illustrates the 
law of growth — that the younger the animal the greater 
the gain from a given amount of food — yet there are such 
irregularities visible as to deprive it of much authoritative 
value. The number of animals is quite too small. 

The following experiments by Stohmann were upon 
lambs seven to eig-lit months old, fed upon straw, potatoes, 
clover-ha}'', and oil-cake. These were combined into rations 
for the four different lots of lambs, each slightly varying 
from the others. These lambs were fed four months before 
shearing and one month after shearing. The nitrogen- 
ous and non-nitrogenous elements of the ration per day 
per head, gain per day, etc., are shown in the following 
table : 



GEEMAN" EXPERIMENTS. 
Before Shearing. 



451 



Lotl. 


Lot 2. 


Lots. 


0.38 


0.28 


0.28 


1.54 


1.56 


1.36 


1.41 


1.56 


1.49 


0.25 


0.21 


0.17 


0.48 


0.35 


0.33 


2.04 


2.03 


1.76 


1:4.3 


1:5.8 


1:5.3 


0.38 


0.25 


0.23 


95.00 


93.00 


86.00 


58.10 


57.40 


56.20 



Lot 4. 



Digestible albuminoids, lbs , 

Digestible carbo-hydrates and fat, lbs 

Nutritive ratio 

Gain per day, lbs 

After Sheaeeng. 

Digestible albuminoids, lbs 

Digestible carbo-hydrates and fat, lbs. 

Nutritive ratio 

Gain pef day, lbs 

Average live weight, lbs 

Dressed in per cent, of live weight . . . 



0.38 
1.41 
1.37 
0.21 



0.46 

1.80 

1:3.9 

0.24 

92.00 

53.10 



This experiment of Stohmann's shows the effect of 
higher feeding over that of Wolff's, but neither shows a 
gain equal to the English experiments given above ; and 
this may be explained from the fact that the English 
mutton sheep are better bred than the German, mature 
earlier, and eat larger rations. Take No. 19 of Mr. SmiWi's 
experiments, where the 10 lambs average 22 lbs. of swedes 
per day. This would be equal to .29 lb. digestible albu- 
minoids, 2.40 lbs. carbo-hydrates, .022 lb. fat; and they 
averaged a gain of .33 lb. per day, and this is only about an 
average gain per day of the lambs in Smith's and Pawlett's 
experiments, and yet the proportions of the rations do not 
greatly differ. 

We will add to these experiments those of Weiske, of 
recent date, on feeding lambs. He carried two lambs 
through nine periods of about five weeks each, beginning 
at the age of four months. At the end of the ninth period 
the lambs v/ere put into the flock for some nine months, 
and then fed another period. The ration consisted of hay 
and peas at first, but gradually the hay was increased and 
the peas diminished until in the last three periods the 
ration was composed wholly of hay. In each period 
analyses were made of the fodder, of the excrement — solid 



452 



FEEDING ANIMALS. 



and liquid — and live weight taken for some eight days. It 
was said also these lambs gained weight faster than lambs 
of the same age on good loasturage. "We are indebted for 
these tables to Prof. Armsby's recent " Manual on Cattle- 



Feeding" 



Per Head. 





"S 
o 

a 

(0 
M 
< 


1 
o 

Td 
'S 


Digested, per day. 


.2' 


Gain, PER DAT. 


Period. 


o 

a 

S 

< 


1 


s 

t 

6 

S 
o 




3 


"3 


1 


4-53^ 

7M— .9 
9 -K,H 
10>^— 1)1^ 
11>^-1^^% 
133^—14 
14 —15 
24 


lbs. 

45.0 
5G.2 
(53.5 
71.7 

77.0 
77. G 
S3. 6 
89.1 
85.8 
126:5 


lbs. 
0.17 
0.18 
0.18 
0.20 
0.18 
0.18 
0.18 
0.17 
0.16 
0.15 


lbs. 
0.03 
0.04 
0.04 
0.04 
0.04 
0.04 
0.05 
0.05 
0.04 
0.00 


lbs. 
0.74 
0.92 
0.90 
0.98 
0.95 
0.94 
0.96 
0.99 
0.98 
1.18 


4.8 
5.7 
5.6 
5.4 
5.8 
5.8 
6.0 

6.6 
6.8 
8.9 


lbs. 
0.28 
0.27 
0.23 
0.30 
13 
0.09 
0.13 
0.16 


lbs. 
17 


2 


17 


3 

4 

5 

6 

7 


0.15 
O.IS 
0.15 
0.13 
19 


8 


10 


9 




10 


14 







This experiment shows very clearly the effect of age and 
weight upon the growth of the lamb — each period a steady 
decrease in gain per day, although the food is. slightly 
increased, and especially in proportion to the gain. Had 
there been a larger number of lambs — say ten — so as to 
have eliminated, the peculiarities of the Individual, tlii.s 
series of experiments would have possessed great value ; 
and this is the fault of most of the feeding exjjeriments at 
the German stations — that they have been performed upon 
individuals and upon too small a number of animals. But 
if this table is calculated per 100 lbs. live weight, instead 
of })er head, the result more clearly appears. 



QEEMAN EXPEEIMENTS. 
Per 100 Lbs. Live Weight. 



453 





Digested, 

PER DAY. 


6 
o 


S 
o 

o 


p. 
B 

3 
'3 a3 

a a 
Sa' 

3 O 


1 

a 

3 
.Q 

^^ 

3 a 
O 


■g'-S 


PiKIOD. 


3 

O 

a 

a 


a 


1. 


lbs. 
0.38 
0.33 
0.28 
0.28 
0.24 
23 
2-3 
0.20 
0.1!) 
0.12 


lbs. 
0.07 
0.07 
O.Ofl 
0.06 
0.05 
0.06 
0.05 
0.05 
0.06 
0.05 


lbs. 
1.67 
1.66 
1.41 
1.36 
1.23 
1.23 
1.15 
1.11 
1.09 
0.93 


lbs. 
0.73 
0.54 
0.41 
0.31 
0.17 
0.13 
0.17 
0.19 


lbs. 
0.29 
26 
0.23 
0.22 
0.20 
0.19 
0.17 
0.16 

o'io 


lbs. 
0.09 
07 
0.05 
0.06 
0.04 
0.04 
0.05 
0.04 

o.bii 


23 7 


2 


21.2 


3 

4 


17.9 
24 4 


5 : 

6 


16.7 
17.4 


7 

8 


22.7 
20 


9 




10 


16 7 







This table shows most clearly the extra cost of putting 
on live weight as the animal grows older and heavier. If 
we take an average of the first three periods, we find that 
33^ lbs. of digestible food produced one pound gain in live 
weight ; but if we take an average of the 6th, 7th and 8th 
periods, it required SA lbs. of digestible food to make one 
pound gain in live weight — about two and a half times as 
much food to produce the same result. This shows in 
striking light the advantage of early maturity. If our 
readers will carefully study these experiments and tables, 
they will never more doubt the economy of full-feeding 
from birth to commercial maturity. 

Cutting and Cooking Fodder for Sheep. 

The preparation of the winter food for sheep is an import- 
ant matter to be considered. The sheep's grinding or masti- 
cating apparatus has often been so strongly commended as 
to lead most feeders to suppo.se that the artificial prepara- 
tion of their food is labor lost. This, however, is far from 



454 FEEDIISTG AKIMALS, 

beiug borne out by the facts. The author, on theory, has 
regarded the cutting of hay and other coarse fodder for 
sheep as good economy; and to test this point by an 

Experiment, 

we fed 25 medium-sized grade Merino sheep 50 lbs. of long, 
early-cut timothy-hay per day for one week, and, on gather- 
ing up the fragments each day, found that the average was 
12 lbs. per day left uneaten. We found, also, that this hay 
was not left because of over-feeding, for when fed 75 lbs. 
per day they ate the same proportion of it. 

They were then given 50 lbs. of the same hay per day cut 
% inch long, for one week, and, on carefully gathering up 
what was left, found less than 2 lbs. average jser day 
uneaten. On increasing this cut hay to GO lbs. per day, 
this was found to be all they would eat. This was con- 
tinned till we came to the conclusion that 60 lbs. of cut 
hay equaled, for sheep, 75 lbs. of the same hay uncut. We 
also found, in the case of good fodder corn, that twice as 
much of it was eaten by sheep, when cut r? inch in length, 
as when uncut. In short, our experiments proved that 
sheep pay as well for fine chaffing of coarse fodder as any 
class of farm stock. The experiment was intended simply 
to test the effect of cutting the hay and fodder corn when 
feeding store sheep. 

In fattening sheep we have exjierimented on the effect of 
cooking hay and grain together. For this purpose we 
mixed 100 lbs. corn-meal, 100 lbs. of wheat middlings and 
50 lbs. of linseed oil-meal (old style). One hundred pounds 
of this mixture was mixed with 200 lbs. of cut hay, the hay 
being first moistened; and then 600 lbs. of this mixture 
were placed in a steam-box and cooked with live steam for 
one hour and a half. The sheep, of about 100 lbs. weight, 
consumed 3 lbs. i3er head per day in two feeds, morning 



COOKED FOOD FOR SHEEP. 455 

and evening, with yi lb. of dry hay at noon. Upon this 
ration the gain was 3 lbs. per head per week. The same 
ration uncooked produced a gain of 3 to 2M lbs. per head 
per week. Upon this cooked ration the sheep seeme''' as 
contented as on grass. 

A cooked ration is more laxative than a dry one, and the 
small proportion of oil-meal also assisted in keeping the 
digestive organs in a healthy condition. The small lock of 
dry hay at noon was relished and corrected any tendency 
to relaxation. Having fed sheep upon steamed food for 
several winters, and always with satisfaction, we came to 
regard this way of feeding as most profitable with a large 
stock and the proper facilities. 

AifOTHER Experiment. 

Under this head we will give a condensed statement of 
the experiments of the late Arvine C, Wales, of Massillon, 
Ohio, in feeding sheep on a large scale upon cooked food. 
In 1874 he divided a lot of 300 sheep into two flocks of 
150 each. The one lot was placed under a shed and fed 
liberally on clover hay and sheaf oats ; the other lot was 
placed in another shed and fed on cut fodder corn and 
wheat bran. Seventy-five pounds of bran were mixed with 
one day's feed of fodder corn and all wet down with boiling 
Avater. Both lots of sheep were weighed before the feeding 
began and frequently during the experiment, of eight 
weeks. He does not give the figures of the weighings, but 
says : " They were interesting to me and so satisfactory as 
to seem to warrant the purchase of an engine and boiler, 
and the putting up of tanks and conveniences on a scale 
adequate to the wants of the flock. Since then I have fed 
cooked food almost exclusively. Last winter, owing to the 
failure of the hay crop, I kept over my entire stock, con- 
sisting of 20 horses, 20 head of cattle, and between 1,600 
and 1,700 sheep, without a pound of hay, and they came 



456 FEEDIISTG ANIMALS. 

into spring in better condition than they have ever done 
on dry feed." He then gives his mode of raising fodder 
corn, which was to sow two bushels of seed with a drill, all 
the tubes working, and cut it with a reaper, setting it up 
in large shocks. He figures his corn at six tons of cured 
stalks per acre, at a cost of seed, labor, all told, including 
shocking, at $1.30 per ton. He gives the following state- 
ment of 

Cost of Steamin^g. 

" The stock now being fed requires about three tons of 
dry feed per day. The cutting is done by a No. 6 
Cummins cutter, and it is so arranged that the cut feed as 
it falls from the cutting machine is carried to and placed 
in the tanks, wet up with the necessary quantity of water, 
and mixed with bran or meal by machinery — so that when 
the cutting is done the feed is ready for the steam. Three 
men in an hour and a half can cut the three tons. With 
the present boiler capacity it takes one man four hours 
more to steam it. The cost of fuel for cutting, mixing, 
steaming, pumping water, etc., is about five cents per ton 
of dry feed. The cut feed is much more easily and rapidly 
distributed to the animals than long feed. It is shoveled 
from the tanks down into wagons with side boards, that 
stand below the bottoms of the tanks, and carried to the 
sheep-folds. The racks are made to accommodate twenty 
sheep, and this number is found to need about two bushels 
of cut feed. The feeder has two two-bushel baskets. 
While he is carrying one to the racks the boy fills the 
other. In this way a man and a boy can feed and care for 
1,500 sheep. The fodder is eaten up clean, a few joints 
and soiled pieces only being left, but not one per cent, is 
wasted. 

"All the advantages claimed for feeding steamed food to 
cattle and horsca — t.ie economy of feed, the increased 



SHEEI- FEEDING. 457 

tealtli, thrift and comfort of the animals — are found in an 
equal degree in the feeding of sheep. The effect is shown 
in the wool, which is of a length, clearness, style, and 
particularly strength of staple rarely found on sheep win- 
tered on dry feed. There is no jar, or tender place in the 
wool indicating the point in the growth of the fibre where 
the sheep changed from green to dry feed. All the wool 
buyers observed this ; and the wool, it is believed, com- 
manded a higher price than any other clip bought from 
first hands in this or any of the adjoining counties. 

" it is not claimed that the steaming of feed adds to its 
nutritive elements. But as the pulverization and stirring 
of the soil promote the growth of plants by making the 
plant food more accessible to the plants, so the steaming 
of feed makes it at once more palatable and more readily 
digested and assimilated by the animals, and performs the 
same office for their food that cooking does for ours." 

We have no doubt that Mr. Wales' views of the improve- 
ment of the food by steaming, for sheep, is correct. Our 
experiments, which long ante-dated his, gave us the fullest 
confidence in this mode of feeding. English farmers find 
great benefit from succulent roots for sheep-feedmg, and 
cooking produces very much the same effect. We think it 
probable, however, that ensilage will take the place in 
sheep-feeding both of roots and cooking. The green corn, 
clover and grass, preserved in silo, may be expected to 
accomplish all that is to be desired m this respect. 
20 



458 rEEDING ANIMALS. 



CHAPTER XII. 



SWINE. 



We discuss this class of stock last, but it is by no. means 
least. The pig is often treated with contempt on account 
of its supposed filthy habits and diminutive size ; but it 
occupies a most important position in our agriculture. It 
furnishes to the people a very large share of their flesh 
food; and in a commercial point of view it rises into grand 
proportions. We have been wont to glory over our export 
of dairy products, especially of cheese, and now we have 
great reason for encouragement in regard to our beef 
export, which may reasonably be expected to reach 
150,000,000 in a few years ; but a comparison of our 
exports of animal products for the fiscal year eudiug June 
30, 1876, places the despised pig at the head. The prod- 
ucts of the pig exported during that year were — 

Bacon and hams, valued at $39,664,456 

Pork, " 5,744,022 

Lard, " 22,439,485 

Lard oil, " 149.156 

Live hogs, " 670,043 

Total value of pig exports, 1876 $68,657,161 

Total, 1881 $105,790,779 

If we -take the entire range of cattle products exported 
during 1876, we find the following items : 

Beef^ valued at $3,186,304 

Preserved meats, valued at 998,052 

Butter, " 1,109.496 

Cheese, " : 12,270,083 

Tallow, " 6,734,378 

Hides and skins, " 2,905,921 

Leather, " 8,394,580 

Total cattle products exported, 1876 $35,598,814 

Cattle products, 1881 $68,711,300 



THE PIG. 459 

By a comparison, we find the exported products of the 
pig at the former period to have been about double the 
vahie of those of cattle, and at the latter period more than 
50 per cent, greater. The item of bacon has greatly 
increased within the last few years. In 1872 it was only 
$21,000,000, and previous to that only averaged about 
$6,000,000 per year, while in 1881 it reached over 
$61,000,000. This great increase has resulted from our 
study of the tastes of the English people. They require 
hams put up in a particular way, and we are only catering 
to that taste, and the increase is $30,000,000 in a few yeara. 
This export of meat instead of corn, concentrating that 
bulky cereal into the condensed product of pork, when it 
may be exported for one-eighth of the cost of exporting the 
raw food to make it, and the difference coming to gladden 
the heart of the meat producer. 

We thus find that the pig grows in the estimation of the 
American farmer every year as, perhaps, the most economi- 
cal macliine for the manufacture of our coarse grain crops 
into meat. This animal is, therefore, worthy of the most 
careful study, as it is soon destined to represent one hun- 
dred and fifty millions in our cash exports. 

The pig yields us more dollars in exports than any other 
single agricultural product except wheat and cotton. It is 
therefore entitled to be treated with great consideration. An- 
other excellent point in its favor is, that no other animal 
utilizes a greater percentage of its food. It costs less food to 
grow a pound of pork than a pound of beef. Sir J. B. Lawes, 
of Kothamstead, in his experiments, a few years ago, found 
that the pig utilized 20 per cent, of rts food, while cattle 
utilized but 8 per cent, of the dry substance of their food. 
It thus appears that the stock fixrmer has every reason 
to study the nature and management of the pig as one of 
his most fruitful sources of revenue. 

If we examine the digestive apparatus of the pig, it will 



460 FEEDING ANIMALS. 

be plain why this animal produces a larger growth from 
the same amount of food than the ox or sheep. Messrs. 
Lawes and Gilbert's researches throw some light upon this 
point. They found, by accurate experiment, that the 
stomach and its contents amounted, in the pig, to only IJ4 
per cent, of the whole weight of the animal, whilst in sheep 
it was 7/i per cent., and in oxen 113^ per cent, of the entire 
weight. But the proportion of the weight of the intestines 
and their contents is greatest in the pig, it being in that 
animal GK per cent., while in the sheep it is 3/4, and 
in oxen only 2% per cent. See on this point page 63 
ante. 

The food of the ruminant consists of a large proportion 
of indigestible woody fibre, whilst the food of the pig con- 
sists more largely of starch, and the digestion of its food 
takes place largely in the intestinal canal. This explains why 
the pig is so great a digester of food, and why it consumes 
more food in proportion to the weight of its body than 
the ox. It also furnishes the basis for an explanation of the 
fact that the pig gains more in weight from a given amount 
of food than the ox. As we have seen, all animals require a 
certain amount of food to keep them alive, or in their present 
condition, called the food of support, and it is the food eaten 
and assimilated beyond this food of support that gives the 
increase, and this is called the food of production. This extra 
food all goes to increase the weight. Now if the pig digests 
and assimilates more in proportion to its weight than the 
ox or sheep, it must use a larger precentage of what it eats 
as the food of production, and, of course, a larger gain re- 
sults from a given quantity of food. Large capacity for 
digestion is, therefore, a prime quality in animals reared for 
the production of meat, and in this respect the pig stands 
unrivaled among all our domestic animals. We shall there- 
fore be justified in studying carefully all its wants with a 
view of supplying them. 



THE PIG. 461 

Cake of Breeding Sows. 

Having selected such young sow pigs as appear likely to 
make the best breeders (and this selection will be made by 
experienced breeders before the pig is two mouths old), such 
system of feeding should be adopted as will develop every 
part of the body evenly, and jDarticularly the muscular and 
osseous systems. The young breeding sow should be fully 
fed, and made to develop as rapidly as good health will 
permit, for the feeding habit and constitution of the mother 
will be inherited by the offspring. The mother is suj)posed 
especially to impart to the young her own digestive system, 
and it is natural therefore to conclude that the thrifty, 
rapidly-growing young sow will impart these characteristics 
to her offspring. Early maturity, together with a vigorous 
constitution is now the desired end sought by all swine- 
breeders and feeders. But the young breeding sow needs to 
have length and depth of body, well-rounded ribs, and ten 
to twelve teats, well spread apart. In order to promote this 
conformation of body, the food of the young sow should be 
rich in muscle and bone-forming elements, not such as is 
best calculated to fatten. A short compact body in a sow 
will indicate a tendency to fatten, and not to bring large 
litters and furnish them with abundant milk. Food rich 
in oil, sugar and starch must be given very sparingly. In 
all Indian corn growing regions, the custom is to feed too 
much corn to young pigs, and especially to young breeding 
sows. Young clover and grass are always proper food for 
pigs ; and in dairy districts, nothing is better than skim- 
milk. Containing so large a proportion of casein, or 
cheese, and phosphate of lime, it is admirably adapted to 
develop the muscular and osseous systems. But in the West, 
the great corn and pig-growing region, so little attention is 
given to the proper food of breeding sows, that they are 
often fed indiscriminately with the fattening herd, almost 
wholly upon corn. We have always regarded that frightful 



462 FEEDIN-Q AKIMALS. 

scourge, hog cliolera, to be largely the result of feeding so 

indiscriminately with corn. As a proof of this, this disease 
is hardly known in Canada, where peas, oats and barley are 
fed in place of corn to young and growing pigs. There is 
also very little cholera in the Eastern and Middle States, 
except among hogs brought from the West. 

The milk supplied by the brood sow to her young pigs is 
said to be even richer in casein, or nitrogenous food, than 
cow's milk ; and as we have said in former chapters, Nature 
furnishes in her food for the young the best combination of 
elements, and if we imitate the milk of the dam,we shall make 
no mistake in the food ration. Then, besides grass, we should 
give the young breeding sow food of similar composition to 
oats, peas, beans, oil-meal, bran or wheat middlings — all 
having a large proportion of albuminoids, and being also 
rich in phosphate of lime. 

It is not well to couple the young sow before she is nine 
months old, as she should not farrow her first litter under 
thirteen months old. Sows are sometimes coupled at six or 
seven months, but this practice is likely to produce a puny 
oflFspring, and if it is persisted in for several generations, like 
planting small potatoes, the progeny will grow smaller and 
punier with each succeeding generation. 

When the young sow is about to farrow, she should be 
put into a small clean pen, with a narrow board placed 
around the outside of the bed, about four inches from the 
wall and four inches above the floor, so as to prevent her 
from overlying her young, which will escape under these 
boards. From one to two bushels of cut straw only should 
be given her for bedding. 

It is expected that these young sows have been petted and 
accustomed to being handled by the attendant. This kind- 
ness and gentleness may save a very valuable litter of pigs. 
If the sow is wild, it is quite useless to attempt to assist her, 
as it will only increase her excitement, and still more en- 
danger the safety of the young pigs. 



THE PIG. 463 

If the sow should produce less than eight pigs at the first 
litter, it may be considered unprofitable to keep her as a 
breeder ; unless her blood is very yaluable, she had better 
be fattened for pork. 

Weight of Pigs at Birth. 

The sow having farrowed her Htter in safety, let us ex- 
amine the young things, and get an idea of their dimensions. 
What does the young pig ordinarily weigh at birth? We 
have never personally weighed them at birth, and know of 
only one record of such weighing. Boussingault says he 
was " curious to ascertain the weight of pigs at the moment 
of birth, so as to determine their rate of increase during 
the period of suckling." He weighed a litter of five pigs 
on the 5th September. They weighed from 2.20 lbs. to 
3.30 lbs., the average being 2.75 lbs. each. This seems a 
very small beginning for an animal that has sometimes 
reached over 1,000 lbs. weight. Thirty-six days afterwards, 
October 11th, the litter had grown to 86.9 lbs. — an average 
of 17.3 lbs. per bead; being an increase of 14.6 per head, 
or 0.41 lbs. per day. On the 15th November, they weighed 
177 lbs. — an increase, in 35 days, of 90.2 lbs., or 18 lbs. per 
head, being 0.50 per day. In another case, he found that 
eight pigs that weighed at a month old 14.3 lbs. per head, 
at a year old weighed 165 lbs. per head; being a gain of 
150 lbs. each in eleven months, or less than half a pound 
per day. 

Milk Yielded by Dam. 

We have weighed many pigs at four to six weeks old, and 
found the weight to range from 12 to 18 lbs. Thus it will 
be seen that the pig increases in weight from birth to 
weaning about fivefold, and then only has a weight of about 
15 lbs. This growth generally comes from the milk of the 
dam m the short time of four or five weeks. What an im- 
mense drain this must be on the mother, and how impor- 



464 FEEDING AN"IMALS. 

tant is it that she should be well fed during the period of 
suckling. She has often to produce more food in her milk 
than is contained -in the milk of an excellent cow, weighing 
three times as much. Dr. Miles, of the Michigan Agri- 
cultural College, found that Essex pigs tliree weeks old 
consumed 3M lbs. of milk each, per day, the first week, and 
nearly 7 lbs. per day the second week. A litter of eight 
pigs at this age would drink some 24 quarts of cow's milk 
per day. To enable the mother to give this large quantity 
of food for her young, her diet must be rich and varied. 
We have found three gallons of skim-milk, two quarts of 
corn-meal, and four quarts of oats and peas ground together 
an excellent diet for a large sow with nine pigs. This 
barely keeps her from losing flesh. If you have not the 
milk, one quart of oil-meal may be substituted and the 
other food increased about two quarts, all given in a thin 
slop. 

EA.TIONS FOR Young Pigs. 

Preparatory to weaning, pigs should be encouraged to eat 
food with the dam. They will learn to drink milk quite early, 
but do not take to eating solid food until some three weeks 
old. The great majority of farmers have skim-milk to feed 
young pigs ; but in the absence of this best substitute for 
the milk of the dam, the solid food should be prepared by 
cooking. There are many rations which will be appropriate 
to young pigs without milk, such as wheat middlings, oats 
and corn-meal, in equal portions, cooked together: or 4 
parts oats, 4 parts corn and 1 part oil-meal, cooked; or 6 
parts peas, 5 parts corn and 1 part flax-seed, cooked; or oats 
and peas ground together and cooked ; or potatoes, corn 
and oat-meal, cooked ; or 4 parts corn, 2 parts oats and 1 
part decorticated cotton-cake, and many other similar com- 
binations of food. But corn-meal alone is a very unprofitable 
ration for young pigs. The food should contain all the 
elements necessary to growing the frame and muscular 



THE PIG. 465 

system. Corn or corn-meal is very inadequate for this pur- 
pose, it being 66 per cent, starch, 7 j)er cent, fat, and only 
about 10 per cent, nitrogenous food, with too small a por- 
tion of phosphate of lime to build the bones. We have 
seen the worst results from attempts to grow good pigs upon 
corn-meal alone. We saw one case of three pigs fed upon 
corn-meal, prepared in the best way, to induce them to eat 
largely of it with the expectation of producing a large 
growth at an early age. The result was, that, at 130 days old, 
these pigs were mere squabs of fat, almost spherical in form, 
and their bones and muscles so weak that two of them could 
not stand but a moment, and had to sit ujjon their haunches ; 
yet these pigs only weighed 90 lbs. each — at least 40 lbs. 
less than if they had been fed a proper ration. It is very un- 
skillful feeding that will not produce an average growth of 
one pound live weight per day. If the feeder has j)lenty of 
skim-milk, then cooked corn-meal mixed with the milk 
makes a very desirable ration — the skim-milk being rich in 
albuminoids and the mineral elements necessary to grow a 
muscular and rangy young animal. Length and breadth of 
body are necessary to build rapid growth ujDon. This devel- 
opment cannot be attained without the proper food ; but 
with either of the rations above recommended, and es- 
pecially the skim-milk and corn-meal ration, the best 
result may be reached. Skim-milk alone has too large a 
proportion of albuminoids to carbo-hydrates, being about 
four-ninths of muscle-forming food, or 1 of casein and 
albumen to 1.25 of milk, sugar and oil. The proportion 
should be, as in whole milk, 1 to 2.25. If, then, one quart 
of skim-milk is added to 1 lb. of cooked corn-meal, the 
starch and oil of the meal will make the proportion right; 
and, fed in this way, a quart of skirn-milk is about equal, 
in food value, to a pound of corn-meal; or 112 lbs. of 
gkim-milk fed with 56 lbs. of cooked corn-meal, is equal in 
growth of pork to two bushels of corn. But if the milk 



4G6 FEEDING ANIMALS. 

is fed alone, the nitrogenous elements are in excess, and not 
fully utilized. This illustrates the advantage of mingling 
a variety of elements in the food-ration, and these elements 
should be selected with reference to the proper balance of 
all the constituents. 

The food of the young pig should be in liquid form, and 
cooked, to render it easier of digestion ; and, as the suckling 
2)ig is accustomed to take nourishment from its dam many 
times a day, he should be fed, after weaning, five times per 
day for some weeks, and then gradually reduced to three 
feeds per day. 

Feeding Whet to Pigs. 

Whey may also profitably be fed to pigs ; but even greater 
care is required to supply the missing constituents of the 
whey than in feeding calves, especially if the pigs are young. 
See pages 242, 243. The young pigs cannot properly be 
grown upon whey alone, as they get less of other food than 
the calf. Pigs are usually kept in pen, and there is not 
food in the whey to grow the bones and muscle ; and this 
explains the cause of disease among small pigs attempted 
to be raised at cheese factories upon whey alone. The only 
case where whey alone may sometimes be fed safely to hogs 
is, when the hogs are full grown, with well developed frame 
and muscle, but lean, requiring to be fattened. Such hogs 
will sometimes fatten very rapidly upon whey alone — the 
whey furnishing the materials to make fat, rounding out 
the body into fine proportions. This mode of feeding may 
be pursued for three months with such hogs, producing a 
good result. But when the young pig is to be grown upon 
whey, it must be mixed with other food, as directed for the 
calf. The pig should also have green grass given in pen 
every day. We have found whey to pay a fine profit when fed 
to shoats of 80 lbs. weight, somewhat lean at the ptfCi't. 
To experiment, we put up 6 shoats of 80 lbs. weight on the 



THE PIG. - 467 

average, costing 5 cents per pound, or $4 per head. These 
pigs were fed K lb. oil-meal, 2 lbs. wheat-bran, and V4 lbs. 
of corn-meal each, per day, in 4 gallons of sweet whey. 
This was the average ration for six months, or 180 days, 
commencing on May 1st. The gain was 270 lbs. each, or 
13^ lbs. per day. The cost was as follows : 90 lbs. of oil- 
meal, $1.35; 360 lbs. of wheat-bran, $2.70; 270 lbs. of 
corn-meal, $2.70 — amounting to $6.75 — add cost of pig, 
and we have $10.75. The pigs averaged in weight 350 lbs., 
and brought 6 cents, or $21 per head. Deducting the cost, 
leaves $10.25 to be credited to the whey. This is $1.42 per 
100 gallons, or, the whey from a cow (500 gallons) worth 
$7.05 per year. In the West this extra food would cost less, 
and make the whey still more valuable. The sugar of milk 
in the whey is very soluble, and will lay on fat rapidly if 
the other constituents are added. 

In growing the young pig upon whey, we do not use corn- 
meal until the pig has reached a weight of some 40 to 60 
lbs. ; before that the ration is very similar to that given for 
the calf. The small pig will increase in weight more, in 
proj)ortion to the food eaten, than the older shoat, but it 
requires more care in feeding. It will be found that 2 lbs. 
can be put on the young pig with the same food that will 
produce 13^ lbs. on the older shoat ; but, as the young pigs 
cost more per pound, there is not any more profit in feed- 
ing them when purchased. Shoats of 60 to 80 lbs. weight 
can be purchased in market for only a trifle more than ? 
pig of 15 lbs.; so that it is more profitable to buy shoats 
than young pigs. It must be obvious from this discussion 
of whey that dairymen are far from making the best use of 
it generally. They Avant to grow an animal on whey alone, 
so that they may make something out of it; but the whey 
possesses only enough of some elements to keep the animal 
alive, without growing, and is likely to create disease; so 
that this penurious use of it is about equivalent to throw- 



468 FEEDING ANIMALS. 

mg it away. It must be remembered that whey is 93 per 
cent, water, and, if it were a well balanced food, the water 
is in too great proportion for the health of animals. If 
grass were 93 per cent, water it would be likely to produce 
disease. But the whey when mixed with dry food becomes 
a healthy ration. The study of the farmer should be to 
make the most of everything. 

Grass as a Part op the Eation. 

We have before spoken of the pig as a grass-eating animal, 
and this part of its nature must not be overlooked. Great 
losses occur every year by confining pigs to concentrated 
food alone. It is doing no greater violence to the nature 
of the horse to feed him wholly upon grain than the pig. 
In a natural state both are supported upon grass. In the 
winter, hay is substituted for grass with the horse, and no 
one expects a horse to be healthy without a certain proportion 
of fibrous food ; and we have no more reason to expect the 
pig to be healthy and vigorous in digestion and without a 
small percentage of bulky fibrous food. The rule, in feeding 
all animals, should be, to follow Nature as closely as possible. 
We have tried several experiments to test the natural system 
of feeding grass as a part of the ration, supplemented by 
grain, m connection with the system of pure grain-feeding. 
Some of these experiments have been published before, but 
they will bear repeating. 

A litter of six pigs were weaned at five weeks old, and 
divided into two- lots of three each and of equal weight. 
Each lot was put into a separate pen on the first day of June. 
One lot was fed wholly upon corn-meal soaked twelve hours 
m cold water, and given ad libitum. The other lot had a 
small portion of green clover, cut short with a straw-cutter, 
and mixed with corn-meal. Only one quart of this cut 
clover was given at first to each pig, with all the meal it 
would eat. This meal being mixed with clover, had its par- 



THE PIG. 469 

tides separated by the fibrous food, and, when eaten, went 
into the stomach in a spongy condition, so that the gastric 
juice could penetrate and circnhite through the mass as 
water through a sponge. It will be noted that the digest- 
ing fluid comes in contact with every part of the mass of 
food at once, and the digestion must thus be accomplished 
evenly and rapidly. But, when the meal is fed alone, it 
necessarily goes into the stomach in the solid, plastic form 
of dough, and the gastric juice cannot readily penetrate the 
mass, but must mix with it, little by little, whilst it is 
slowly moved by the muscular contraction of the stomach. 
The lot of pigs with the clover and meal were always lively, 
always ready for their feed ; whilst the other lot, with meal 
alone, ate greedily for a time, and then became mincing and 
dainty for a few days, indicating a feverish state of system, 
taking little but water for a few meals ; and by fasting they 
appeared to recover the tone of the stomach and the appetite, 
and go on eating vigorously again. This was repeated many 
times during the five months the experiment continued. 
On weighing the two lots at the end, the one fed on meal 
alone averaged 150 lbs. each ; the lot on clover and meal 
averaged 210 lbs. each, or 40 per cent, more for being 
treated according to their nature as grass-eating animals. 
Each lot consumed the same amount of meal. The clover 
was intended, principally, as a divisor for the meal, and 
amounted to not more than two quarts at a feed. We have 
often since followed this plan in summer, giving all the cut 
clover they would eat, mixed with the various kinds of 
grain used, and it is a most excellent system when incon- 
venient to give pasture. This may be considered the 

Soiling System foe Swi]srE, 

and, when properly conducted, is capable of being carried 
on with a large herd, by simple subdivision into lots of 
twenty each. An acre of good clover will soil four times as 



470 FEEDING ANIMALS. 

many pigs as it will pasture, giving them a full ration of 
grass, with this great advantage over pasture, that you may 
mingle the grain ration with it so as to produce the most 
rapid growth with perfect health. Pigs in pasture, fed on 
grain at the same time, are apt to take mostly to either the 
grain or the grass, and thus not make as rapid progress as 
when the ration is properly combined. We have never seen 
a pig that did not relish green clover and grain mixed to- 
gether. It may be mingled in any proportion the feeder 
chooses, and the animal thus be pushed slowly or rapidly, 
as circumstances require. 

This system should become the prevailing one in the West 
— adopted as a matter of economy — producing greater re- 
sults from the same capital and labor. A swine-herder, under 
this system, may prepare the ration and feed 500 pigs, look- 
ing after all their wants, and producing much more uniform 
growth than under the present system. The cost of labor 
per head will be very trivial. 

A modification of this plan may be adopted in connection 
with pasture, by feeding the grain, mixed with a small por- 
tion of short-cut grass, in long troughs. Any green food 
may be used in lieu of clover ; such as green rye, oats, mil- 
let, Hungarian grass, green peas, etc., but nothing, except 
the peas, is equal to the clover. This system will be con- 
sidered more appropriate to Eastern farms, on account of 
their limited area, and is especially adapted to the great 
want of the Eastern farmer — more home-fertilizers. The 
pig-pen will become the great resource of better tillage. 

The Pig in Winter. 

The great importance of this class of stock commercially) 
and the large extent to which its flesh is used for home 
consumption, demanded a thorough discussion of its man- 
agement in all its phases. 

The proper system of winter-feeding requires to be better 



THE PIG. 471 

settled. The old " storing " system, by which a pig is 
simply kept alive during winter, that it may be ready to 
grow the next summer, has not yet been wholly given up, 
but may be found in full operation in many parts of our 
country. It does seem as if every feeder should have dis- 
covered the utter improvidence of this practice. If pigs 
were like a wagon, a bin of grain, or a mow of hay, that 
might be kept over winter without expense, there would be 
some excuse for it; but when we reflect that two-thirds of 
a full ration is used merely as the food of support, without 
adding anything to the weight or value of the pig, this 
practice of keeping pigs through the winter, or at any 
other time, without constant growth, seems absolutely 
indefensible. 

As we have shown in previous chapters, time is a most im- 
portant factor in the problem of pig-feeding. Every week 
that a pig is kejDt without growth, tlie feed is worse than 
thrown away, because it takes time to overcome the un- 
thrifty habit, and all the food is lost till growth begins 
again. It is thus evident that the skillful feeder must strive 
after continued and unremitting growth. 

The winter season should be no exception to this steady 
growth, although it will require more food to put on a 
pound gain in winter than in summer, unless the tempera- 
ture in the pig-pen is raised to near summer warmth. All 
animals must keep up their heat by the consumption of 
food, and it makes a great difference whether the surround- 
ing air is at zero or sixty degrees above. It would seem, 
therefore, that while thrift is as necessary in winter as sum- 
mer, the feeder way control the temperature and save a large 
percentage of the food in winter growth. 

We have just discussed the importance of grass as a 
part of the ration of the pig. It miglit reasonably be sup- 
posed that the pig would require some fibrous food in win- 
ter as well as in summer ; and if green clover is good in 



472 FEEDING ANIMALS. 

summer, why not nicely-cured clover hay in winter ? 
Having established the necessity of grass, in its season, for 
the promotion of health, the writer experimented also on 
the use of clover hay in winter as an additi-on to the grain 
ration. 

Having four pigs of the same age, and about the same 
weight, they were divided into two lots of two each. Each 
lot weighed 150 lbs. at the commencement of the experi- 
ment. One lot was fed corn-meal, wet up with hot water, 
and allowed to stand some ten or twelve hours. The other 
lot was fed about two quarts each of short-cut clover-hay, 
mixed with corn-meal, wet up with hot water, and allowed 
to stand the same length of time. Each lot was fed with- 
out stint upon its ration, and the experiment continued for 
120 days. As in the experiment with grass, the. lot on 
clover-hay and meal had the best appetite, ate the most 
steadily and showed greater thrift ; but the lot on meal 
alone were apparently healthier than those on meal alone 
in the other exjoeriment; but they were older, and, the 
weather being colder, were not so feverish. This latter lot 
gained 110 pounds per head ; whilst the lot on clover, hay 
and meal gained 143 lbs. each, or 30 per cent. more. Since 
this we have often fed pigs upon fibrous food in winter, and 
always successfully. Feeding clover-hay in winter may be 
novel; but why should it not be considered as ajDpropriate 
to feed pigs clover-hay in winter, as to feed cattle or horses 
clover-hay in winter ? The pig eats green clover in sum- 
mer, if he can get it, as profitably as the cow or horse ; and 
when farmers understand the true system of feeding, clover- 
hay will generally make part of the winter ration of pigs. 

Cob-meal as Pig Food. 

As bearing upon the necessity for coarse food in the 
ration, we will give some experiments made with the meal 
of corn and cob ground together. 



THE PIG. 473 

There has been a great yariety of opinions expressed 
upon the value of the cob-meal, many supposing it to be 
injurious to the coatings of the stomach, even in horses, 
and the pig's stomach has been thought by some as inca- 
pable of managing such hard material as the scales of cob ; 
but we long since experimented with corn and cob-meal, 
and found all these adverse opinions merely imagmary. 
We have fed it largely both to swine and horses, and never 
saw any ill effects from it, but, on the contrary, found it a 
healthier feed than clear meal. The advantage of grinding 
the cob and corn together is not altogether in the nutri- 
ment of the cob, but because the cob, being a coarser and a 
spongy material, gives bulk, and divides and separates the 
fine meal, so as to allow a free circulation of the gastric 
juice through the mass in the stomach. Corn-meal, when 
wet into plastic dough, is very solid, and not easily pene- 
trated by any liquid; and when pigs are fed wholly on 
corn-meal, they often suflFer with fever in the stomach, be- 
cause the meal lies there too long undigested. 

We will here give the experiment of two farmers' clubs 
in Connecticut, to show the value of corn-meal, corn and 
cob-meal, and whole corn. We condense it to the essen- 
tial facts. 

A committee of the two farmers' clubs appointed to make 
the experiment, purchased nine thrifty shoats and divided 
them as evenly as possible into three lots, placing three in 
each of three separate pens. The experiment began the 
first of April, and ended the sixth of June. 

Lot No. 1 was fed 1,333 pounds of corn ground into 
meal — clear meal, wet in pure water. Lot No. 2 was fed 
1,361 pounds of corn and cob-meal, wet up m water. Lot 
No. 3 was fed 1,192 pounds of corn soaked in watei*. 

Results : Lot No. 1 weighed at the beginning of the ex- 
periment, 453 pounds ; at slaughtering, 760 pounds; gain 
in live weight, 307 pounds; dressed weight, 615K pounds. 



474 FEEDING ANIMALS. 

Lot JSTo. 2 weighed at beginning, 467 pounds ; at slaughter- 
ing, 761 pounds ; gain in live weight, 294 pounds; dressed 
weight, 593 pounds. Lot No. 3, live weight at start, 456 
pounds ; at slaughtering, 689 pounds ; gain in live weight, 
233 pounds ; dressed weight, 567 pounds. 

Lot 1 gained in live weight for every bushel fed, 12.90 
pounds; lot 2 gained 15.11 pounds; lot 3 gained 10.38 
pounds per bushel. Lot 1 took 4.34 pounds of meal for 1 
pound gain in live weight, and 5.37 pounds for 1 pound 
dressed weight. Lot 2 required 4.62 pounds to make 1 
pound live weight, and 5.93 pounds for 1 pound dressed 
pork. Reducing this quantity of cob-meal to clear meal, 
it will be found that 3.70 pounds make 1 pound live weight, 
while 4.75 pounds make 1 pound of dressed pork. Lot 3 
required 5.11 pounds of clear corn to make 1 pound live 
weight, and 6.21 pounds to make 1 of dressed pork. 

This was a valuable experiment, and greatly surprised 
the committee appointed to carry it out. They say : "We 
have long been satisfied that a certain amount of coarse ma- 
terial fed to cattle with concentrated food was both judi- 
cious, economical and profitable, but on account of the 
peculiar construction of the pig's stomach, we were not 
prepared for the result, showing the desirability of feeding 
a coarse material in connection with corn-meal to pigs." 
This experiment shows that cob-meal is superior in feeding 
value to clear whole corn, and that it is nearly as valuable, 
cob and all, as clear meal. Cob-meal should always be 
ground very fine. , 

As we are treating of winter-feeding it will be appro- 
priate to discuss the form and construction of the 

Swine House, 

and preliminary to tbe description of a plan of our own, 
Ave will give an illustration and description of the breeding 
pens of a most intelligent practical breeder and feeder at 



SWINE HOUSE. 



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476 FEEDIKG ANIMALS. 

Neponset, Illinois, Dr. Ezra Stetson. The doctor has 
been a very successful breeder and feeder for the general 
market. We are indebted for the illustration to the National 
Live Stock Journal. The engravings are upon a scale of 32 
feet to the inch. 

Figure 16 shows a side elevation of the building, which 
is a very plain, unostentatious structure, but substantially 
built. Figure 17 shows the ground floor, with its sub- 
divisions. The main elevation at the right (Fig. 16) is 
devoted to corn-cribs and the cooking apparatus. This 
part of the building is 26 x 48 feet, and is divided as shown 
m Figure 17; L being a corn-crib, 9x20 feet; JSf a corn- 
crib, 9 X 48 feet ; M a hall, or drive-way, 8 x 48 feet ; P, 
platform scales for weighing grain, hogs, etc.; is a plat- 
form outside of, but adjoining, the corn-crib on the south 
side, and is 16 x 56 feet, with doors opening to the corn-crib, 
as shown in the diagram. This platform is surrounded by 
substantial fence. Before feeding, the gates G, G, G are 
all closed, and the platform swept perfectly clean. The 
corn IS then placed on the floors, the gates are opened, and 
the hogs walk in to their repast. When it is designed to 
load a part of the hogs in the wagon, to take them to the 
market, the gates G G are closed, in a line with the west 
end of the platform, leaving the southern gate, which swings 
across the platform, open. As many hogs as are wanted 
are then driven into this wing, or L, of the platform, and 
the south gate is closed across the platform from the fence 
to the southeast -corner of the corn-crib. The hogs are thus 
securely confined in a small inclosure. The large, outside 
gate G is then swung round toward the corn-crib, across 
the platform, and this reduces the space to which the hogs 
are confined to about one-half. The wagon is then backed 
up to the small gate G, Avhich is then opened, and the hogs 
are loaded without difficulty. 

K, represents a platform, 18 x 48 feet, constructed simi- 



THE PIG. 477 

larly to the one at 0, on the opposite side of the corn-crib. 
This is used for feeding the pigs. Dr. S. nses a steaming 
apparatus to make slops for the sows and pigs. This he be- 
lieves causes the sows to give much more milk and thus 
to hasten the growth of the pigs. Long troughs are placed 
upon this floor, K. The gates are closed ; the floors and 
troughs are thoroughly cleaned; the slop is put in the 
troughs, as described in the communication of the Doctor, 
to the Journal, given below ; the gates are opened, and the 
pigs rush to the feast. 

The long wing to the left of the corn-crib and feeding 
floors is cut up into pens, as shown by the diagram. These 
pens are 6 x 10 feet, and the alley {H), running through 
the center, is four feet in width, opening at one end on to 
the feeding floor {K), for pigs. At the extreme left of this 
wing is a large, inclosed feeding floor or pen (/), 24 x 24 
feet. Dr. S. is strenuously opposed to putting anything 
between the beds upon which the pigs sleep and the roof 
which covers them, as he considers free, upward ventilation 
essential to the health of his pigs. Hence, he is opposed 
to all two-story pig pens. He usually keeps from 300 to 
500 hogs. 

The following is Dr. Stetson's explanation of his piggery : 

" All corn-raisers know that the foundations of a cOrn- 
crib can hardly be made substantial enough. Ours rests 
upon six rows of stone and brick pillars, thirteen in each 
row, with the bottoms of the sills about two feet from the 
ground. The feeding floors are on the same level with the 
floor of the crib, and have a drop of six inches in the six- 
teen feet, to carry off the water from rains. 

" The feeding floors rest upon four rows of posts set in 
the ground, twelve in each row, and sawn off to the proper 
level. Shoulders are then sawed on one side of these posts, 
and 2 by 8 joists spiked to them, on which the planks are 
laid. The outside row of posts should extend three feet 



478 FEEDIN'G ANIMALS. 

above the feeding floor, and be closely boarded up all round 
except the gate to the entrance. 

''The watering barrel may be placed where convenient. 
Two kerosene barrels are set side by side, connected by a 
short piece of gas-pipe. Water is let into the barrel with 
the valve and float from the reservoir, and can rise no" 
higher than confined by the float, and as fast as drunk out 
will be immediately filled — provided, always, the reservoir 
is not allowed to get empty. By this arrangement ii peren- 
nial spring is brought to the very place wanted. 

" The cooking arrangement will probably be omitted by 
the great majority, should they build upon a similar plan. 
In raising large numbers of pigs, it is next to impossible to 
make slops for the sows and their pigs without some sort of 
a heating apparatus, and I think this has the merit of be- 
ing convenient. We make the wind do all the lifting of 
the water, and a very small quantity of fuel, rightly ajDplied, 
will boil a large quantity of water. The cooking tub may 
be of any desired size. Ours holds five or six barrels, and 
is made with a hinged valve ; and the food is dropjied into 
the cooling trough, where it is made of the proper consis- 
tency by the addition of cold water, drawn from the cooling 
trough, into a truck, and wheeled upon the platform, or 
where desired, and then drcnvn into troughs. There is no 
lifting of Avater or swill at any place, 

"Our piggery is very cheaply constructed. Large cedar 
posts are sawn in half and set in the ground, for the frame- 
work. Ribs, 2 by 4, are spiked to these posts, to which the 
weather-boarding is nailed. The tops are sawn off to the 
proper level, and the plates spiked to them, upon which the 
rafters rest. These posts are set six feet apart ; and as our 
breeding pens are six feet by ten, they form one side of 
each compartment. The partitions are removed when not 
wanted for breeding pens, and the whole space used as a 
sleeping floor for the fattening of hogs or pigs. 



THE PIG. 479 

'' The floor to the piggery is entirely unconnected with 
the framework. Stringers are laid crosswise of the build- 
ing on which the plank floor is laid. The alley is four feet 
wide, with a door to each pen. With this arrangement of 
gates and doors, one man can put in place the most refrac- 
tory old sow, or any other Jiog. 

"Let me say that our floors are of hard pine plank, 2 by 
10 inches ; haye been laid for eight or nine years, and that 
about 200 hogs have been fed upon them each year, and 
they now look as though they would last as much longer." 

A"troTHER Plak of Swike House. 

As pork is largely grown in the West and accommoda- 
tion is required for large herds, it will hardly be appropri- 
ate to give the description of a pen with a less capacity 
than for feeding 200 hogs in winter. As we have seen, 
economy in feeding requires that the pen should be warm, 
in order that the temperature may seldom, if ever, go below 
60 degrees. With so large a number, the extra food re- 
quired to keep up animal heat would soon pay for a warm 
pen. Perhaps the cheapest plan to build a warm pen is to 
use 2 X 4-inch studding, placed three feet apart, boarded up 
outside and in, leaving a four-inch air space; or, if the 
weather-boarding is to be perpendicular, ribs, 2x4 inches, 
may be spiked to outside of the studding, and the weather- 
boarding nailed to these, leaving a six-inch air space, to be 
filled with saw-dust or short-cut straw, well rammed in. 
To prevent this filling from being a harbor for vermin, 
mix a little coal-tar, or chloride of lime, or fine air-slaked 
qnick-lime with every layer. With this latter plan the out- 
side may be built of cedar posts, in the manner described 
by Dr. Stetson, above, placing cedar posts in the ground, 
six feet apart. The he-ight of the pen at the eaves should 
be 8 feet. Our plan requires a building 28 feet wide, and 
150 feet long, besides corn-cribs, cooking room and breed- 



480 FEEDING ANIMALS. 

S 

ing pens. The floor is placed two feet above the ground. 
Each pen is to be 10 x 15, accommodating ten hogs. The 
feeding floor is 8 feet wide with a tier of pens on each side. 
This plan of swine house is intended as the most conven- 
ient form for economy of labor in cooking the food for a 
large number of hogs. It is also most convenient for any 
other system of feeding, if done in j)ens. A trough, 15 feet 
long, next the feeding floor, must be provided for each pen, 
with a swing door over each trough, to shut the hogs off 
while the feed is being put in. The hogs come out of the 
pen over the trough on a light bridge through a door in the 
partition next the feeding floor. 

A Self-Cleaning Pen. 

Still regarding the greatest economy of labor, we would 
construct the floor as follows : Next and under the trough 
is a strip of solid floor 2 feet wide ; and 5 feet next to this 
is an open, slatted floor, composed of oak strips, 13^ inches 
thich by 2)^ inches wide, set edgewise, 1 inch apart, for the 
passage of the manure below. And next the wall is a strip 
of tight floor, 3 feet wide, for bedding, slanting IK inches 
toward slatted floor, so that water will run to slats. Under 
the open, slatted floor is a sliding-board, set slawting to the 
outside wall, along the side of which wagons can be driven, 
and, letting down a long swing door, the manure shoveled 
in and carried away. The pen cleans itself, all works 
through the slats, and no manual labor is required. If bed- 
ding is used, it inay be placed on the tight floor next the 
wall for the hogs to lie on. Seldom any droppings will fall 
on the tight floor. To secure pure air, put a ventilator 
2x4 feet m the ridge, every twenty feet, with slats on side 
to prevent storm from driving in. For the admission of 
fresh air, a slide 7 x 14 inches may be placed in the outside 
wall between each two pens, one foot above the floor, which 
can be opened or closed at pleasure. This will cause a cir- 



THE PIG. 481 

culation of air and keep it pure. The feeding floor is wide 
enough to drive a wagon through, and loads of dry earth 
may be brought in and thrown over the oj)en floor, which 
mixes with the manure and deodorizes it. This open 
floor is not an experiment, but was in use by the late 
J. J. Mechi, in England, for 30 years ; and the author 
has used it for single pens and found it to work well. No 
bedding is required, and the pigs keep much cleaner than 
is usual on tight floors where bedding is used. 

It is intended to have the outside tightly closed below the 
floor, so as to prevent as much as possible the circulation of 
air under the slats. With a long-handled shovel the manure 
is easily loaded and requires no other labor than hauling 
to the field. 

Since writing this description of the self-cleaning pen, 
the author has constructed one with iron slats or bars, one 
inch wide and lo-iuch thick placed f -inch apart. This grat- 
ing may be four or five feet wide ; ours is four feet, and the 
wooden floor for bedding is also four feet, with a grade 2 
inches toward the grating, so that all liquid will run toward 
the grating. This proves to be a completely self-cleaning 
pen. This wrought-iron grating, with bars so thin, is not 
liable to clog, as is the wooden slats, from being so deep up 
or down. This floor and grate is elevated 18 inches, and 
the bottom is concreted so as to save all the liquid and solid 
dropping. A door one foot wide is let down and the ma- 
nure IS easily taken out with a long-handled shovel from 
the outside. It will only require cleaning once in three 
months. It is a pleasure, clean hogs in a clean pen. 

Cooking Hog Food. 

When cooking is to be done for so large a number, 
economy requires an apparatus in proportion. An eight- 
horse boiler and engine should be placed m an extension of 
the swme house, which can shell and grind the corn, or bet- 
21 



482 FEEDIIfG ANIMALS. 

ter to grind the corn in the ear, leaving the cob to give bulk 
m the stomach, and cook the meal into the most palatable 
mush, for 200 or more hogs. And, that the cooked food 
may be handled with the least labor, two box-cars, on wheels 
two feeb high, each car being five feet wide, three feet high 
and sixteen feet long, holding about 200 bushels, are re- 
quired. There is a track in the middle of the feeding floor 
on which these cars are run. One of tliese cars, when full, 
weighing some four tons, may be handled by one man, and 
run along the track, so as to feed the pigs upon either side 
of the feeding floor. A small rope runs the whole length of 
the feeding floor and is fastened at the other end, whilst at 
the car end it runs over a small pulley or windlass, and with 
crank the feeder moves the car along from pen to pen. The 
mush, when thin enough, runs through a spout to the 
trough in the pen on either side. The feeder soon learns 
how to apportion it to each pen. The car, when full, con- 
tains 40 bushels of meal, 20 bushels of cut clover-hay and 
640 gallons of water, or 16 gallons for each bushel of meal. 
The water is pumped by the engine into an elevated tank, 
holding the requisite quantity, which is heated nearly to 
the boiling point in the tank, and then drawn into the car 
through a pipe. There are marks inside the car to indicate 
each hundred gallons, so as to show the feeder when he has 
the requisite quantity. This water is brought to a brisk 
boil in the car, when the meal may be sifted into the boil- 
ing water through a sieve suspended above. The meal, 
when ground, is- elevated into a hopper over the sieve, and, 
being drawn through the spout upon the sieve whilst that 
is swung back and forth, the meal is sifted evenly into the 
boiling water in the car, and no lumps are formed. After 
the meal is sifted in, one-half bushel of cut clover-hay to 
each bushel of meal is mixed in with a rake. When the 
mush is too thick to run it is taken out with a scoop and 
put into the troughs. We have found the best way to ap- 



THE PIG. 483 

ply steam to such a mass, is to run it through a coil inside, 
placed on the bottom. The coil is in two parts, running 
backward and forward from the center each way, three 
turns of the coil, terminating in a goose-neck at each end 
of the car, which goose-neck comes above the water and de- 
scends within four inches of the bottom. This effectually 
prevents the pipe from filling with water or mush ; and the 
steam, in passing around this coil, keeps it very hot, and, 
discharging near the bottom, keeps all the heat in. To as- 
sist in keeping the heat in, a folding cover may be used, 
which is spread out in a moment, and removed as soon. 
When mixed, it is allowed to cook for an hour and a half. 
It requires no stirring, as in boiling over a fire. These cars 
are lined with No. 22 sheet-iron, riveted and soldered, which 
prevents any break or swelling of the wood-work of the car. 
This lining is rubbed over occasionally with tallow, which 
prevents rusting, and the mush from sticking to it, or, bet- 
ter still, if the lining of the car is made of galvanized iron, 
which will not rust for a long time. 

In the center of the feeding floor should be placed a pair 
of eight-ton platform scales, for the purpose of weighing 
any pen of hogs at will. A movable railing placed across 
the floor at each end of the scales, with a small gate in one 
to let the hogs in, and the hogs from any pen may be driven 
upon the scales in two minutes, without disturbing the 
rest. 

This is a general sketch of the swine-house proper. The 
corn-cribs and the engine-house will be at one end, and may 
be made as roomy and convenient as the feeder chooses. 
The breeding-pens may be added to the end opposite the 
corn-cribs and engine-house ; but this same feeding floor 
should run through all, so that the car can reach every pen. 
It is intended that there shall be no freezing in this house ; 
and, with the use of the engine, water is easily pumped into 
an elevated reservoir, from which it may be run to any part 



484 FEEDIN-G A]SriMALS. 

for any purpose. Ventilation is made so complete, that 
fresli air is constantly admitted and vitiated air carried ofE. 
This engine furnishes power for every purpose required ; 
and when the cost is divided by the number of hogs fed, it is 
so trivial as hardly to be worth considering. It is intended 
that 200 hogs shall be constantly fattening, and their 
places supplied by others as fast as sold. Hog-feeding may 
thus be reduced to a system as perfect as that of cotton- 
spinning. 

No STOEii«rG Period. 

We have treated, in a general way, of all its various 
stages of growth to the time of the final fattening period ; 
and it has been plain, from our illustrations, that we believe 
in a growing period commencing with the first day of its 
life, and continuing till the last, and that there should be 
no stand-still period in any correct system of feeding. But 
the 'wintev-stormg system has taken such a deep root in the 
minds of pig-raisers that Dr. Andrew McFarland, a former 
superintendent of the Insane Asylum at Jacksonville, 111., 
conceived the idea of placing the pig in compulsory hiber- 
nation in winter, so as to have him ready for rapid growth 
the following summer. This, he thinks, a most important 
object to secure ; and if the storing system is necessary, we 
cannot dispute his conclusion. He cites the case of a fat 
hog that was accidentally buried under a straw-stack, in the 
fall, where it remained several months, and on discovery, 
came out alive and apparently well, having lost little flesh ; 
and another case of a hog, buried under a snow-drift, re- 
maining some eleven weeks, coming out alive, though gaunt 
and lean, having lost its fat in keeping up animal heat. 
From these and other instances, he supposes it quite possi- 
ble to devise a system of hibernating the pig much cheaper 
than feeding it. He would "select a dry spot, and place 
a young hog, in good flesh, under an inverted box, contain- 
ing 80 to 100 cubic feet of free air — the box to be perfo- 



THE PIG. 485 

rated with holes, or made of lattice work — then four feet of 
well-packed straw on the sides, running .to a cone above, 
placing the hog in this position at evening." We give this 
ingenious conception of the doctor's because it may be re- 
garded as much cheaper, and quite as merciful, as the sys- 
tem that some feeders adopt during the winter. But if the 
hog could be safely hibernated, it would scarcely be profit- 
able, when it is considered that those animals that hiber- 
nate often come out with a loss of 40 per cent, in weight ; 
and just think of the amount of food required to bring them 
back into a thrifty state ! Butthat is not much worse than 
the folly of throwing away four to six months' food to keep 
pigs alive without growth. Still, as the general system 
adopted supposes a period when a special effort is made to 
ripen the pig for market, we propose to treat of this. 

Fattening Period. 

A very large proportion of farmers keep their pigs 
through the summer on poor pasture and a little refuse 
from the kitchen, postponing till cold weather the fatten- 
ing. This is, of course, a very bad plan, unless the feeder 
has a warm house in which to feed them, and then quite 
indefensible, as every feeder should make the most of the 
warm season for fattening, for it will take a large propor- 
tion of the food to keep them warm — much larger than is 
generally supposed. We desire to make this matter plain, 
and will give some experiments that have been made to 
test it. 

Mr. Joseph SulMvant, in his pamphlet, gives an experi- 
ment, tried at Duncan's Falls, Ohio, in 1859, where a large 
lot of hogs were weighed, on the 10th of September, and 
turned into a forty-acre corn-field, where they remained 
till October 23d. Having eaten down the field, they were 
again weighed, and found to have gained 16,000 pounds; 
or ten pounds ]oer bushel of corn, estimating the yield at 



486 FEEDING ANIMALS. 

40 bushels per acre. He tlieu selected from the lot 100 
hogs, averaging- 200 pounds each, placed them in large 
covered pens, with plank floors and troughs, and fed them 
upon corn-meal, ground in the ear, and well steamed. At 
the end of a week, they were weighed, and found to have 
gained 20 pounds for each 70 pounds of cob-meal — the 
weather being warm for the season. The first week in No- 
vember (the weather being much colder) these hogs gained 
only 15 pounds to the 70 pounds of steamed meal ; the third 
week of the same month (the weather being still colder) 
they gained only 10 pounds per bushel, and the next week 
(it getting still colder) they only gained 6M pounds per 
bushel. This lot was then sold ; and he selected another 
and fed in December. The weather being about the same 
as in November, they gained GM pounds per bushel. This 
lot was weighed again the middle of January, and the corn 
fed during a week only increased their weight IM pounds 
per bushel — the thermometer being down to zero. Another 
week, on being weighed, they just held their own ; the tem- 
perature being from one to ten below zero. 

This experiment is a fair representation of the effect of 
temperature upon the thrift of fattening hogs. "When very 
cold, the hog can only eat enough to keep up animal heat, 
and the food, producing no gain, is thrown away. It must 
thus be seen that postponing the fattening till winter is very 
bad economy, and unless the swine-house can be kept at a 
temperature of about 60° there can be no profit in winter- 
feeding. This it is not difficult to do ; and no large feeder 
can properly excuse himself on the ground of cost or econ- 
omy, for his losses from cold in a single winter would build 
and equip a swine-house in which such a temperature could 
easily be maintained. 

Selecting Pigs for Fattening. 

Many of our Western readers buy the pigs they feed, in- 
stead of raising them, which may be necessary in some 



THE PIG. 487 

cases, but cannot be recommended as a system. The feeder 
gets his profit on a lot of hogs, purchased for finishing for 
market, from the increase in weight and improvement in 
quality that he expects to make. He will, therefore, be 
governed by different considerations in the purchase of pigs 
for fattening than he would in rearing his own pigs. In 
the latter case, he would find his profit in keeping them 
growing as rapidly and constantly as possible. He would 
want them always in condition for slaughter ; but, in select- 
ing pigs for feeding, he will look for a well-developed, rangy 
frame, with more muscle than fat, and healthy, vigorous 
condition ; and, by good feeding, he will expect to increase 
the weight rapidly, and add to his profit. But these lean 
hogs were raised at a loss, which must be pocketed by the 
seller. When vigorous, lean hogs are put up and well fed, 
they have simply to fill up with fat, to round out into great 
weight. Such hogs will stand heavy feeding with clear 
corn for a few months, and make very profitable packing 
pork. 

Philosophy of Cooking Food. 

Our first inquiry here should be, what is the eflect of cook- 
ing food ? The bulk of all our cereal grains used as food 
for pigs is composed of starch ; and starch, as manufact- 
ured, or as found in the cells of vegetables, consists of 
globules or grains, contained in a kind of sac, and in order 
to burst these grains, heat must be applied. Payen, on 
mixing starch with water, and heating to 140° F., examined 
it with a microscope, and found only some of the smaller 
grains had absorbed water and burst, most remained still 
unaffected, and only bursting when heated to from 162° to 
212° F. These experiments have been often repeated, and 
seem to show, conclusively, that the heat of the animal 
stomach is not sufiicient to fully utilize starch. Pereira, 
one of the best writers upon food, says: "To render 
starchy substances digestible, they require to be cooked to 



488 FEEDING ANIMALS. 

break or crack the grain." Easpail, a writer upon the 
chemistry of foods, says : 

" Starch is not actually nutritive to man till it has been 
boiled or cooked. The heat of the stomach is not sufficient 
to burst all the grains of the feculent mass, which is sub- 
jected to the rapid action of the organ ; and recent experi- 
ments prove the advantage that results from boiling the 
potatoes and grain which are given to graminivorous ani- 
mals for food, for a large proportion, when given whole, in 
the raw state, passes through the intestine perfectly unaf- 
fected, as when swallowed." 

Every housewife is familar with the fact, that starch will 
not dissolve in cold water. It follows, then, that those 
grains containing the largest proportion of starch will be 
most benefited by cooking, and these (corn, rye, oats, bar- 
ley) are most used as fattening food for pigs. Corn, 
especially, is considered the standard fattening food, and 
that contains about 64 per cent, of starch ; rye, 54 per cent.; 
barley, 47 per cent., and oats 40 per cent, of starch. When 
corn-meal is well cooked, it is something more than doubled 
in bulk — the bursting of the grains of starch causes it to 
swell and occupy twice its former space — and some feeder's 
have considered it as valuable, bulk for bulk, as before 
cooking; or, in other words, that its value is doubled by 
cooking, Hon. Geo. Geddes, of New York, a farmer of 
long experience, says : 

" I find if I take ten bushels of meal and wet it in cold 
water, and feed 25 hogs with it, they eat it well ; but if I 
take the same quantity and cook it, it doubles the bulk, and 
will take the same number of hogs twice as long to eat it 
up ; and I think they fatten twice as fast, in the same length 
of time. By cooking, you double the bulk and value of the 
meal." 

We have one complete, comparative experiment of our own 
to ofTer as illustrating this point. On the first of October, 



THE PIG. 489 

divided six pigs, of the same litter, into two lots of three 
each, they being of the same weight and thrift — 225 pounds 
each lot — placing them in separate pens. Lot No. 1 was 
fed ujDon corn-meal, soaked about 12 hours in cold water — 
all they would eat — with a little early-cut clover-hay thrown 
into the pen for them to chew, to promote health. Lot No. 
2 was fed corn-meal, thoroughly cooked, and fed lukewarm, 
ad lihihim, with a lock of clover-hay. This exjDeriment 
continued till the 8th of January, or 100 days. Lot 1 con- 
sumed 2,111 pounds of meal, and gained 420 pounds — 
average 140 pounds each. Lot 2 consumed 2,040 pounds, 
and gained 600 pounds — average 200 pounds each. This 
gives 11 pounds gain, for one bushel of meal, by lot No, 1 ; 
and 16.47 pounds gain, for a bushel of meal, by lot 2. 
Lot 1, ate on an average, 7.04 pounds of meal per day, and 
gained 1.40 pounds. Lot 2 ate on an average, 6.80 pounds 
of meal per day, and gained 2 pounds. 

We have no doubt the gain would have been slightly larger 
in each lot if the meal had been mixed with the clover-hay, 
cut. We have reached, with a larger lot of hogs, 17.20 
pounds to each bushel of cooked meal, consumed, mixed, 
before cooking, with a little cut clover-hay. This is, how- 
ever, a larger average than can be counted upon in any large 
operation. 

Mr. Joseph Sullivant, before alluded to, who made a 
thorough examination of all available statistics, summed 
up the evidence as follows : 

" I conclude that nine pounds of pork from a bushel fed 
in the ear, twelve pounds from raw meal, thirteen and a 
half pounds from boiled corn, sixteen and a half pounds 
from cooked meal, is no more than a moderate average 
which the feeder may expect to realize from a bushel of 
corn, under ordinary circumstances of weather, with dry, 
warm and clean feeding pens." 

He gives thirteen experiments in feeding raw corn ; four 



490 FEEDING ANIMALS. 

experiments (those of the Shakers of Lebanon, N. Y., 
Thomas Edge, Prof. Miles, of the Michigan Agricultural 
College, and J. B. Lawes), showing that raw meal will make 
12 pounds ; five experiments to show that boiled corn will 
make 13K pounds ; and ten cases to prove that boiled meal 
will make 16M pounds of live pork. But although these 
experiments do prove these conclusions, we cannot expect 
that common feeding will reach these averages. All these 
experiments are tried by more than ordinarily accurate and 
enterprising farmers] and we should cut down the aver- 
ages as follows : By good management, the general 
feeder may reach, with raw corn, 8 pounds ; with raw meal, 
10 pounds; with boiled corn, 12 pounds, and with boiled 
meal, 15 pounds of live pork, per bushel. ■ 

There would not be so mu.ch difference between boiled 
corn and meal, if the corn were boiled long enough, or 
steamed under pressure, so as to burst the kernel and break 
all the starch grains ; but it is not generally so thoroughly 
cooked as to effect this. The skin or rind of grain is very 
tough, and intended by nature to protect the interior or 
more nutritious part of the seed. When this rind is broken 
and ground to powder, the action of heat is made more 
rapid and effectual in bursting all the grains of starch, and 
in rendering it all digestible by the ordinary action of the 
animal stomach. 

Will it Pay to Cook for Hogs ? 

The answer to tliis question must depend wholly upon 
circumstances. The statement of experiments, showing 
what may be expected from the effect of cooking, will en- 
able anyone to determine this question for himself. It will 
not pay to cook for a small number of pigs, because the 
cost of labor, fuel and apparatus will be more than the gain. 
It will cost as much labor to cook for ten pigs, with a small 
apparatus, as for fifty to one hundred with such an appara- 



THE PIG. 491 

tns as we described a few pages back. Cooking on a small 
scale, will only be done where the farmer has a warm pen, 
and does his fattening in winter, when he has little else to 
do. If ten pigs are fed 100 days upon seven pounds of 
corn-meal each, per day — whole amount, 7,000 pounds, or 
125 bushels — and if we suppose that cooking will give five 
pounds more to the bushel, or 635 pounds of live pork, and 
this worth five cents per pound, the feeder will receive 
131.25 for the expense of cooking. It is for the farmer to 
determine whether he could afford to perform this labor for 
313^^ cents per day. But if he has 100 hogs to feed, he Avill 
receive $312.50 for the 100 days, or 13.123^ per day. It is 
easy to see that the latter will pay. 

In our plan of cooking, we exclude all attempts to feed 
cooked food in troughs in the open air in cold weather. 
Nothing but failure can be expected of such attempts. 
The food will be hot or frozen. Great changes in the tem- 
perature of the food is not relished, and food in a semi- 
liquid state is to be avoided when the temperature is much 
below 60° F. If hogs are to be fed in the open air, in 
winter, it should be with dry food. Corn, then, will do best 
in its natural state ; but if the weather is cold, as we have 
seen, it will require liberal feeding to produce any gain. 

In rearing young pigs in winter, some arrangement for 
cooking will be quite essential to rapid growth. In pre- 
paring slops for the brood sows, to cause a generous flow of 
milk, cooking will be required. We quite agree with Dr. 
Stetson, on page 478, upon this point. Facility for cook- 
ing, will enable the feeder always to give a greater variety 
in the diet of young, as well as fattening hogs. In cook- 
ing, everything may be used to advantage. Pumpkins, 
potatoes, carrots, beets, turnips, cabbages, short-cut clover, 
oil-meal, wheat-middlings — each or all may be cooked with 
the corn or corn-meal, making a savory mess, greatly 
relished by pigs or fattening hogs. As in the near future, 



492 FEEDING AKIMALS. 

little corn will be sold, even in the West, except in the 
form of pork, beef or mutton, it is reasonable to expect 
that the economical preparation of food will be more care- 
fully studied and accurately tested in large experiments, 
and when this shall occur, we have no doubt that the 
thorough cooking of the food of hogs will be established as 
an economy. 



REMEDIES IK DISEASE. 493 



CHAPTER XIII. 

WATER REMEDIES. 

We may be expected to have something upon the treat- 
ment of diseases of stock. But we must confess at the be- 
ginning that our confidence is very slight in the ordinary 
veterinary remedies, aside from surgical remedies, which 
should be based upon true science. The attempt to make 
a specific prescription for a particular disease was long ago 
called, by a medical man, ''a blow in the dark." Young 
practitioners believe in a large number of specifics — those 
of long experience are not certain of any. The stock- feeder 
should place his faith in prevention. " An ounce of pre- 
vention is worth a pound of cure." 

The author wrote the following observations some fifteen 
years ago upon the 

Uses of Water ik the Diseases of Cattle, 

and he regards them as yet practically sound : 

As bleeding, blistering, and all violent remedies for the 
human subject goes gradually out of date, so the milder 
treatment and greater trust in nature ought to be applied 
even to our animals. But still, all treatises yet extant for 
the guidance of the herdsman, after describing the disease, 
turn only to the medical vocabulary for relief; and the poor 
animal must be bled, purged, cauterized and irritated, in- 
stead of being soothed, quieted, assisted. 

In garget, or swollen udder, for instance, bleeding or a 
purgative is first recommended. Let us examine the case. 



494 FEEDING ANIMALS. 

The udder has become inflamed, probably the teats are 
swollen, the milk coagulated, with more or less fever. Now, 
the prescription says, bleed, purge with epsom salts, ginger, 
nitrate of potassa, molasses, etc. The operation of this j)ur- 
gative is to irritate the stomach, alimentary canal and intes- 
tines, and, by sympathy, other parts of the system, of neces- 
sity increasing, at first, the fever and irritation, which it is 
intended to allay. All purgative medicines operate by irri- 
tation, and not as a solvent. It is a direct attack upon the 
vital functions, which, in self-defense, pour upon it a 
watery secretion from the mucus membrane of the stomach 
and bowels, to dilute it and render it less harmful, while it 
is conducted along the alimentary canal by peristalic motion, 
and expelled from the bowels — called a cathartic, because 
nature kick» it out as an intruder, an enemy, yet this is 
called science ! 

But, says the conservative, if this is at antipodes with Na- 
ture, what shall we do to harmonize with and assist Nature 
to recover her balance ? Let us see : 

The greater part of the animal body is composed of water. 
Three-fourths of the mass of the blood, and nine-tenths of 
the fluid secretions are water. All nutrient matters are con- 
veyed in water to the blood, and through it to all parts of 
the system. Water is the only solvent for the alimentary ex- 
crementitious matter, and through which the wastes or effete 
matters are expelled by the excretory organs. Water can cir- 
culate through all the tissues of the body without producing 
irritation or injury: In short, water is in perfect accord 
with the whole animal system. 

Fever and inflammation are caused by some obstruction 
in the circulation of the system, sometimes by a sudden cold 
which closes the pores of the skin, and prevents the proper 
excretions. In high fever, or inflammation, it has been said, 
" blood is on fire ; extinguish the flame and the patient will 
be well." 



WATEE REMEDIES. 495 

What more is there necessary than to cool off the part, to 
relieve the system of this unnatural heat ? Water is the 
most universal cooling agent in nature, is always at hand, 
and easily applied. Everything in nature seeks an equi- 
librium. Apply cold to the surface of the skin, and the hot 
blood rushes there to resist it, and to equalize the heat. 
The tendency to congestion of the internal organs in fevers 
is relieved by an application of cold to the surface. Water 
not only cools the skin, but opens the pores and promotes its 
excretions, and when we reflect upon the large amount of 
matter that passes ofl" through the pores of the skin, we see 
the importance of keeping it in a clean, healthy state. 

Garget. 

In case of the garget, the swollen udder only requires to 
be cooled and cleansed, and to be kept cool for a short time, 
to be restored to its originally healthy condition. 

Water furnishes just the means for this purpose. With- 
out exciting and irritating the whole system of the cow, 
which is already too much excited, water will quiet and 
soothe the inflammation, cool and soften the hot, dry skin of 
the udder, and soon give ease and comfort to the cow. But 
how shall the water be applied to accomplish this ? 

Washing and sponging the bag with water will not an- 
swer the purpose, unless unremittingly applied, which would 
require a more faithful attendant than is generally found. 
But if you take an oil-cloth or india-rubber cloth bag, made 
to fit the cow's udder, or nearly so, coming up to the body, 
flaring at the top, held up by a strap over the back, then 
filled with soft water of moderate temperature, say 65°, you 
will have an apparatus that will require very little attention. 
This can be applied by anybody, and with much less trouble 
than a purgative can be given. This mild water will absorb 
gradually the heat from the udder and not cause any shock 
to the system, or much determination of blood to the part. 



496 FEEDING ANIMALS. 

Very cold water should not be used, unless there is much 
inflammation in the udder, as it will cause a great determi- 
nation to the part affected. The water must be changed as 
often as it gets warm. And as there is generally more or 
less disturbance of the whole system, and an inclina- 
tion to constipation, give the cow an injection of about 
three pints of soft blood-warm water — simple water, no 
medication in it. This will produce a movement of 
the bowels without any irritation, as the water liqui- 
fies or dissolves the hard fa?ces and cools off the 
intestines and bowels. If the first injection does not 
operate in an hour or so, it proves that there is much in- 
ternal heat, that the water has been absorbed, and another 
should be given. These injections are perfectly harmless, 
and can certainly be given as easily as medicated ones; they 
may always take the place of the purgative, and will answer 
a much better purpose. When the application is com- 
pleted, let the udder be slightly chafed with a dry cloth, 
and rubbed with a little lard. We have several times made 
this application and always with most gratifying success, 
seldom requiring more than a few hours. 

Puerperal or Milk Fever. 

It may be thought that this disease offers insuperable ob- 
stacles to the use of water ; that as the cow in many cases 
cannot stand, the remedy cannot be applied. We admit 
that this disease, as heretofore treated, has been alarming 
and difficult to the herdsman ; that, as it sometimes comes 
on so suddenly, runs its course so rapidly, and is drugged 
so lustily, if not wisely, it leaves his mind in confusion 
and uncertainty. But there is no real difficulty in using 
water in this case. The true method is to treat cows be- 
fore and at calving, so that this crisis in the disease will not 
occur. All stimulatiDgfood should be avoided and the ani- 
mal ke;pt where she may have uniform warmth and air, and. 



WATER REMEDIES. 497 

as in most cases, the udder is swollen and hot, make appli- 
cation recommended for garget ; give copious injections 
of blood-warm water, which will relieve the bowels and in- 
testines ; then take matting or old carpeting, wide enough 
to reach from udder to foreleg, and long enough to reach 
around her, put it under her and bring it together over the 
back, then pour slightly cool water between the blanket and 
her side, thus wetting her over the principal seat of fever or 
inflammation, producing a fomentation and gradual cool- 
ing of the whole surface, modifying her fever and generally 
producing relief at once. It is well to wet and rub gently 
her back, hips and flanks. As often as this blanket begins 
to dry water should be poured in as before, until the fever 
passes away, when the blanket may be taken off and the 
cow gently chafed with a dry cloth until the hair is dry. 
Moderately cool water should be given her to drink, but no 
effort made to stimulate her appetite, which will return 
when Nature calls for food. Let it ever be remembered 
that this treatment and all treatment of sick animals should 
be performed in the gentlest manner. Let roughness and 
cruelty be monopolized by the butcher, and never used by 
the herdsman. 

Milk fever is apt to be accompanied by more or less of 
hrain fever, and in this case, what is done must be done 
quickly, and the best application is a drench of very cold 
water (ice water), delivered between the horns and on the 
forehead. This should be repeated several times, if necessary. 
It should not be continued till chills are produced. But when 
the disease has reached the brain, veterinarians do not ac- 
knowledge any probability of cure, yet the author has known 
of several cases recovering after the use of the cold drench. 
It is not very different treatment from that of brain fever 
in the human subject — pounded ice between two linen 
cloths applied to the brain. When the drench is applied 
the other applications must also be made. 



498 FEEDING ANIMALS. 

If this fever should occur in cold weather, a dry blanket 
may be put over the wet one, to keep the heat from passing 
off too rapidly, but if the fever should be high there will 
be no danger of this. 

Since writing the foregoing, several experienced dairy- 
men have reported to us in confirmation of our treatment 
for milk fever, that finding a cow in the worst stages 
of this fever, and quite unable to stand, they caused 
her to be frequently and thoroughly washed, and covered 
with a blanket to keep the evaporation from being too rapid 
— that " it worked to a charm," as they phrased it, the cow 
soon recovering her usual strength and milk. 

The reader will readily see how this treatment may be ap- 
plied to other fevers and inflammations ; in what is called 
common or simple fever, the same application should be 
made. In inflammation of the lungs, a similar application 
may be made to the chest, and in all cases of fevers and in- 
flammation, injections should be freely used ; they answer 
in all cases much better than the drug purgative. 

In diarrhoea, the injection is valuable where a change of 
food is not sufficient to correct it, as it cools off the bowels 
and intestines, allays irritation, and enables Nature to 
resume her proper functions. 

Water Treatment for Horses. 

Wounds, Bruises, Si^rains, etc. — The best surgeons now 
regard water as an important auxiliary in treating wounds. 
Lavements, pourmgs, wet compresses, etc., are used for the 
human subject ; and water answers equally well for animals. 

Simple cut wounds, when cleansed and dressed with water, 
usually heal without suppuration, especially, if the blood be 
in a healthy state. There being a tendency in all wounds 
to fever and inflammation, water dressing, in the form of 
wet bandages, keep down the unnatural heat, and allow 
Nature to go on with the healing process. The lips of the 



WATER REMEDIES. 499 

wound may, generally, be held together with adhesive 
straps, and the water application put over. The most dan- 
gerous wounds, near some vital part, are frequently healed 
with the aid of water to keep down the inflammation. We 
remember a fine mare that stepped on a hoe, the handle of 
which had been split, leaving a sharp end, and throwing 
the handle u]) under her belly, caused a deep, ugly wound, 
and so lacerating the bowels, that, being in August, it was 
thought almost useless to attempt saving her. But by 
dressing the wound constantly with water, the flies were 
kej)t'out, inflammation prevented, and the wound healed in 
two months, leaving the animal as valuable as before. Not 
long ago we had a mare that accidentally struck a nail deep 
into her foot, and being idle in the stable at the time, it 
Avas not discovered till the foot became much swollen ; and 
when the blacksmith took off the shoe, the foot was in such 
an inflamed condition, that he thought nothing could jDre- 
vent gangrene and loss of her foot. But a shallow tub was 
put into her stall, filled with water, and the foot placed in 
it. So much did this relieve the pain, that when the water 
was changed, the animal would, voluntarily, place her foot 
in it. The inflammation was soon reduced, and the foot 
became sound. 

Bruises and S2orains are most aptly treated with water, 
as they are liable to be followed by protracted inflammation. 
The parts should be immersed in, or poured with cold water, 
and then kept bandaged Vtdth water, often changed, till the 
inflammatory action is passed. 

Spraiisted Ankle. 

We have seen the most remarkable eflfect of rubbing with 
water, followed by a water bandage, Avhich was changed 
twice per day, upon the ankle of a horse whose foot was 
caught in a tread power, and doubled over so badly, that 
parties who saw the accident thought it very improbable 



500 FEEDING AKIMALS. 

that the horse should be able to work again in two months. 
But by rubbing the ankle in water for one hour, and then 
bandaging it in water for three days, he went to work again 
on the fourth day as if nothing had injured him. 

A few months ago a friend of ours had a wiry, tough 
little mare who had been growing lame from a sprained 
ankle for several months, and he had about despaired of 
much improvement. We advised him to place a heavy 
water bandage on the ankle of the little mare when brought 
in towards evening. He did so, and in a few days she was 
very much improved, and in three weeks she was well. 

Treatment for Colic. 

The best treatment for this ailment of horses is the pre- 
ventive treatment* in feeding. We do not think a horse 
ever had the colic without error in feeding too concentrated 
food, or, perhaps, driving rapidly on a full stomach. But 
these errors will more or less occur, and then the 
remedy. 

It is always caused by indigestion and fever. The best 
application is, first rubbing the abdomen and chest witk 
cold water, and then placing a heavy woollen blanket 
under the belly and bringing the ends up jover the back, 
when cool water can be poured in between the blanket 
and skin, keeping the body wet just back of the foreleg. 
This will usually give relief in a few minutes. The author 
has seen a number of horses with colic led into a creek, in 
warm weather, when the horse would immediately lay down 
in the water and get relief in that Avay. We have never 
seen a horse with colic that would not make the application 
himself when given an opportunity. This application can 
be made in a warm stable in winter, but in that case the 
Avater should not be below G0°. If the horse is constipated 
injections of soft water should be used. 



remedies for diseases. 501 

Food Medicines. 

Stock-feeders have not studied sufficiently the effect of 
foods upon animal ailments. The condition of the system 
can be completely controlled by food. There are laxative 
foods and constipating foods and food with other remedial 
qualities. A laxative food is anti-febrile ; in fact, a proper 
understanding of the management of laxative food will 
prevent diseases. Fevers often arise from a too free and 
long use of a constipating food. 

A close observer can tell at once what variation in food 
may be required to establish a healthy condition in a horse; 
that is, in horses constantly under his eye. But he must 
have studied the effect of foods and rely upon them, instead 
of the medical vocabulary. A horse should never be al- 
lowed to get into a condition in which food will not recover 
him. Flax-seed is, perhaps, the most convenient laxative 
food. Boiled flax-seod will take effect quite rapidly, and 
no veterinarian will say that this laxative is not milder, and 
to be preferred, where it will operate, to a medical laxative. 
Peas are slightly constipating, beans more so, finished 
middlings a little binding, and an occasional half pint of 
boiled flax-seed mixed in will keep the proper balance. 



502 FEEDING ANIMALS. 



APPENDIX. 

AMEEICAN ENSILAGE IN ENGLAND. 

There having been many questions raised in reference 
to the wliolesomeness of ensilage as a food, especially for 
milk, we regarded the following correspondence and 
analysis of maize and rye ensilage by Dr. Voelcker, of 
England, as important enough to be added in an appendix, 
with other recent statements in this country. Mr. Edward 
Atkinson, of Boston, who has taken much interest in the 
development of this system of ensilage in 'New England, at 
the instance of an English friend, sent maize ensilage and 
rye ensilage to Prof. Voelcker for analysis and experiment. 
The following is Mr. Atkinson's letter to the American 
Cultivator, accompanying the report and analysis of Dr. 
Voelcker : 

Impoktant Statements by Peof. Augustus Voelcker. 

An Englisli friend of mine, liaviug become greatly interested in 
tlie subject of ensilage, and having seen only samples of French fod- 
der, carried to England in bottles, I suggested sending to him two 
casks, one of Yankee corn fodder, the other of rye; upon his assent 
thereto, the two casks were forwarded to Prof. Voelcker, the leading 
agricultural cheniist of England, by whom they have been analyzed, 
and whose report is inclosed herewith. I have been informed that 
Prof. Voelcker had previously been very skeptical in regard to the 
value of this method of saving green crops. 

It may interest your readers to know that I measured off half an 
acre of good land and planted it in the autumn with winter rye 
which I reaped a little too late, when the straw had hardened, about 
the middle of June of last year. I then planted Soutliern corn, the 
growth of which was checked considerably by the drought, but which 



AMERICAN ENSILAGE. 503 

reached an average lieiglit of ten feet, and whicli was cut in Septem- 
ber. I computed tlie total of tlie two crops at twenty tons, and I 
think it would have been four or five tons more except for the 
drought. I shall carry my two cows from fall feed to summer pas- 
ture, with a considerable quantity left over. 

The fact that this fodder could be taken from the pits, packed in 
casks and sent to England in good condition, is suggestive — first, as 
to the feeding of live cattle in crossing the sea. Would not good 
corn fodder, packed in casks, be better than hay and more suitable, 
bulk for bulk ? 

Second, may not persons who live in city or village raise fodder at 
some distance, permit it to wither on the field, so as to lose its elas- 
ticity, and then pack it in flour barrels or sugar barrels, using a lever 
to press it, to be brought in from the farm to the city or village, as 
needed for the family cow ? 

I am well satisfied that four cows can be maintained on an acre of 
g.ood land for twelve mouths, if they are fed with a small ration of 
cotton -seed meal in addition to the ensilage, and the manure is all 
restored to the land. It would, perhaps, be more prudent to call the 
ratio three cows to an acre of good land for twelve months. 

In another aspect tjiis matter of saving green crops for winter fod- 
der may greatly affect the prosperity of New England farmers. If 
I have been correctly informed, one of the obstacles to the raising of 
long-Avooled sheep of the finer sorts with entire success, in V&rmont 
and elsewhere in the North, has been the effect ujioh the staple, at 
about the middle of its growth, of the change in the habit of the 
sheep when transferred from the open pasture to the barn, coupled 
with the entire change in the quality and kind of food thereafter 
given. 

It has been stated to me — whether it is true or not I do not know 
— that during the period when the sheep are becoming accustomed 
to the changed conditions, a short bit of weak staple is formed, 
where the fibre breaks when it goes into the combing machine at the 
factory, thereby greatly increasing the proportion of noils and waste. 
Now there is no condensed food upon which sheep thrive better than 
cotton-seed meal, and cotton-seed meal is one of the substances most 
frequently fed in connection with ensilage. 

It is to be hoped that some Vermont farmer will try the experi- 
ment of feeding sheep with ensilage and cotton-seed meal, if it has 
not already been tried, graduating the change from the open field to 
the barn in such measure as not to affect the condition of the animal 



504 FEEDING AKIMALS. 

in tlie process. May it not thus oe possible, not only to increase the 
quantity of wool in very great measure, but also to improve the 
quality at the same time ? 

__ May not ensilage extend the period of feeding upon succulent food 
throughout the year, and thus assure the production of fine, lon^- 
stapled wool of uniform quality ? On the other hand, the rich ma- 
nure of sheep fed in part upon cotton-seed meal will keep the corn 
land devoted to the ensilage crop in full heart. 
Boston, Mass. Edwaed Atkinson. 



Dr. Voelcker's Eeport. 

Analytical Laboratory, 

11 Salisbury Square, Fleet Street, 

London, E. C, March 10, 1883. 

Dear Sir : The maize ensilage from Boston reached me in a per- 
fectly sound condition. The rye ensilage was also sound, but here 
and there I found a few bits which were slightly mouldy. On 
exposure to the air the maize ensilage kept much freer from white 
mould than the rye ensilage. Both were decidedly acid, the maize 
ensilage much more so than the rye ensilage. 

My impression is that well-made maize ensilage may be taken out 
of a silo and freely exposed to the air without becoming mouldy and 
unfit for feeding purposes. Rye ensilage appears not to keep so 
well when taken out of the silo ; should be consumed without much 
delay. 

The fact that maize ensilage keeps sound and free from mouldiness 
better than rye ensilage appears to me to be due to the circumstance 
that maize contains more sugar than green rye. In the silo the 
sugar in the green food enters into acid fermentation ; and the 
organic acids formed from the sugar are, as you are aware, prevent- 
ives of decay of organic vegetable matters. In the case of maize, 
more acids, such as acetic, lactic, butyric and similar aromatic 
organic acids, are generated than in the case of green rye, for the 
latter is much poorer in sugar than maize, and this is no doubt the 
reason why maize keeps better than green rye. 

The proportion of acids in ensilage I find varies a good deal, and 
the nature of the organic acids in ensilage also is subject to consid- 
erable variations. In some instances I have found the prevailing 
acid in maize ensilage to be non-volatile lactic acid ; in other samples 



AMEEICAK ENSILAGE. 



605 



lately examined by me most of the acids iu ensilage I found to be 
acetic and butyric acid. 

A sbort time ago a sample of maize ensilage was sent to me from 
Canada, iu whicL. I found, in round numbers, one per cent, of 
butyric and other volatile organic acids. This sample contained 
85. G9 per cent, of water, or fully three per cent, more than the 
sample which was sent to me from Boston, and although it has been 
freely exposed to the air for nearly two months, the ensilage is 
perfectly free from white mould. The Boston sample, on exposure 
to the air for about a fortnight, got slightly mouldy on the top 
layers, but not nearly to the same extent as the rye ensilage. 

The following are the results which I have obtained in the careful 
and detailed analysis of the average samples drawn from the two 
barrels of Boston ensilage. 

Composition of two samples of ensilage sent from Boston : 



Percehtage op Dry Substance Soluble in 
Water, 4.08. 


Rye 
Ensilage. 


Maize 
Ensilage. 


Water . 


75.19 
.86 
.11 

.03 
1.10 
1.01 

.98, 

.75 

8.41 

11.08 

.49 

100.00 

.16 
.12 


82.401 
.59 
.22 

1.26 

2.58 

.50 

.60. 

.761 
5.43 
5.14 

.52. 


m 




O^OT 




^^ 




(!>« 


Lactic acid ... = 


C -1 

^ 2 


^Soluble ulbumiiioids 




Percentage of* dry substance insoluble 
in water, 20.73. 








reS-;? 


Insoluble mineral matters 


r' s*o 




e-| 




100.00 

.08 
.12 


♦♦Containing nitrogen 





You will notice that the rye ensilage contains about seven per 
cent, less moisture than the maize ensilage, and much less acid than 
the latter. Probably the green rye was too far advanced in growth 
before it was put into silos, and not so rich in sugar as it was at an 
earlier stage, when it contained less indigestible woody fibre. 

Much of the success in making ensilage depends upon the proper 
state of maturity of the green food. Green rye, maize, and, in 
fact, all kinds of succulent vegetable produce, should be cut down 
-i-i 



506 FEEDING ANIMALS. 

n(^itlier too immature nor overripe, but when the green food contains 
a maximum amount of sugar. The sweeter the green food tlie 
hotter it will keep in silo, and the more nutritious and wholesome it 
will turn out when ready to he consumed by cows or other live 
stock. 

There can be no doubt that both the rye and the maize ensilage 
which you directed to be sent to me from Boston are good and 
wholesome foods. I prefer the maize to the rye ensilage, and 
consider ensilage specially useful to milch cows in winter. Decorti- 
cated cotton cake and ensilage go well together and make rich milk. 

I may say in conclusion that I sent the ensilage not required for 
analyses to our experimental station at Woburn, and my farm 
manager reports to me that the cattle took to the ensilage at once 
and apparently liked it much, and, as far as could be judged, did 
well upon it. On the other hand, fattening pigs did not care for the 
ensilage, and would not touch it at first. 

[Signed] Augustus Voelckeb. 

Mr. Atkinson's suggestion that ensilage, packed in casks, 
might furnish an excellent food for fat cattle in transit 
to Europe, is a good one, but perhaps he overestimates 
the comparative value, and we can well believe it to be 
practical from experiments made by us more than 25 years 
ago. We took a large linseed-oil cask and pressed green 
clover into it in June, pressing in the head and sealing the 
seams with white lead. This was kept for a year without 
the appearance of fermentation, the blossoms looking bright 
on opening. 

His suggestion of the use of ensilage in feeding sheep in 
New England is in the same vein as ours on pages 435-37. 
There is no doubt that ensilage will make the staple of 
wool uniform throughout. See experiment with steamed 
food, pages 456-7. 

Dr. Voelcker's analysis and report are interesting and 
important, as showing that the acid in ensilage is princi- 
pally lactic, which is supposed to be favorable to the pro- 
duction of agreeably-flavored milk. The Doctor gives a 



AMEEICAN" EliSILAGE. 607 

decided indorsement of ensilage for milch cows. His 
ojjinion of the comparative value of corn and rye ensilage 
arose, no doubt, from the too rijie condition of the rye 
when stored. We shall see that the practical test of com- 
parison, made on Mr. Havemeyer's herd, showed rye ensi- 
lage much superior to green corn. Eye, when cut, jus(, 
before blossom, shows, on analysis, nearly 50 per cent, more 
nutriment than green corn ready for the silo. 

We find the following account of Mr. Havemeyer's use 
of ensilage in the American Cultivator : 

Eksilage IK ISTew Jekset. 

" While the adoption of the ensilage system has spread 
enormously during the past year or two, it may be doub«ted 
whether so valuable and exhaustive a test of its merits has 
been made as at Mountainside Farm, New Jersey, the 
property of Theodore A. Havemeyer, of New York City. 
It was a bold measure, several years ago, to substitute 
ensilage exclusively for hay in the feeding of one of the 
finest and most valuable herds of Jersey cattle in the 
world, a herd that would probably sell at auction for 
upwards of $100,000, and where the income from the sale 
of high-bred calves was of the first importance. It was 
still bolder from the fact that in so doing the grain ration 
of the cows was cut down to one-half that which had 
previously been fed with hay, causing greater physical 
dej)endence upon the new food. It was still bolder when, 
having passed through the winter, the cattle were not 
turned upon pasture in the spring, thus giving a respite 
from ensiloed food, as has been the custom elsewhere. 
From October, 1881, until now, the entire herd, old and 
young, were kept upon ensilage, without intermission, save 
occasionally when, for a day or two, a change was made 
for the sake of experiment. The result has been, that. 



508 FEEDIISTG ANIMALS. 

with half the amount of grain former!}^ fed with hay, the 
same cows have averaged over 100 pounds (fifty quarts) 
more of milk per month than they did on the old diet. 
Their coats look glossy and sleek, and every indication is 
that of blooming health. The calves that have been 
drojjped upon the place from silo-fed parents, themselves 
silo-reared, are pronounced without dissent by the hundreds 
who visit the place to be of the best quality and in excellent 
condition. It may .be doubted whether another lot of 
animals equally large, vigorous and healthful at various 
ages can be found short of a climate that affords pasturage 
the year round. "Wliile much of this condition is due to 
the ffict that the parent herd, both as regards the imported 
and the native-bred animals, was selected with an eye to 
constitution and superior physical capacity, their blooming 
condition is unquestionably due, in a great measure, to the 
method of feeding. 

"Notwithstanding the undoubted success of ensilage 
feeding, Mr. Havemeyer and his foreman, Mr. Mayer, admit 
there are some facts connected with ensilage that are hard 
to account for. While it appears inTprobable that the feeding 
value of green forage could be improved upon its natural 
condition when fresh by stowage under j^ressure in a pit, 
the experiments at Mountainside Farm raise the question 
at least to the dignity of a debatable one. When in 
August last the working force of the farm was concentrated 
upon the great work of transporting the fifty acres of green 
corn-fodder frorn the fields in which it grew, through the 
giant cutters and carriers, iu-to the great pits where it was 
to be preserved for the Coming year's use, a pit of ensilaged 
rye-fodder which had been stored earlier in the season, and 
from which the herd were being fed, gave out. To open 
a new pit would be to divert the use of the machinery and 
the time of three or four men from the special work of 
harvesting, to which all energies were being devoted. Mr. 



AMEKICAN ENSILAGE. 509 

Mayer, therefore, ordered that several loads of the corn- 
fodder cut fresh in the field should be placed before the 
cows instead of their customary feeds of ensilage. 

" They ate it with great relish, and they ate a much 
larger quantity than they did of the rye ensilage; never- 
theless, with the same grain ration, they fell off in milk. 
Thinking the result due to the fact that the ensilage had 
had the advantage of having passed through the cutter, 
the fresh corn-fodder was then submitted to that treatment 
instead of being fed long, but the milk continued to 
diminish until at the end of three days the average daily 
shrinkage per cow was four pounds (two quarts), which, 
when tested in quality, showed two per cent, less cream. 
A new pit of ensilage was opened, and in two days the 
cows were back to their full flow. This comparison be- 
tween ensilage rye and fresh corn-fodder is the more sur- 
prising from the fact that as a fresh feed rye-fodder is 
inferior to corn-fodder. 

*' The discrepancy cannot be attributed to a difference in 
amount of food, for, as carefully ascertained, the cows ate 
sixty pounds of the corn against twenty-five pounds of the 
rye. The chemical theory is that the method of storing 
ensilage causes it to develop lactic acid, which is in itself a 
stage of digestion, and so effective in its action that the 
food renders a maximum of its nutriment to the support 
of the animal." 

The value of the above statement consists in the main 
and undoubted facts stated — that a great herd of dairy 
cows had been fed upon ensilage, steadily, for 18 months, 
remaining in health and satisfactory yield of milk ; calves 
healthy and of vigorous growth, with a large reduction of 
the grain ration. These are important facts. But the state- 
ment that the cows lost four pounds of milk each in three 
days by a change to green corn, and gained it again in two 
days on being fed corn ensilage, we must regard as an error 



510 FEEDING ANIMALS. 

in length of time at least. A change of food does not so 
suddenly affect the yield. Then it is an error to say that 
green rye m proper condition of maturity is inferior to 
green corn. It is true that cows prefer the taste of green 
corn — they even prefer it to green clover, but who supposes 
it to be superior to green clover ! 

A Teial of CoEjsr Ensilage with Dry Food. 

Mr. Henry E. Alvord, the very intelligent director of 
Houghton Farm, gives, in a paper read before the New 
York Agricultural Society, and published in the last Ee- 
port, an interesting trial of the effect of corn ensilage with 
grain compared with dry food and grain, in feeding two lots 
of six Jersey cows each, for twelve weeks. The following 
IS a statement of the experiment : 

These twelve cows were fed and treated alike for a fort- 
night prior to beginning the record, and then for twelve 
weeks their treatment was exactly the same, except that 
one set of six (lot A) received only corn ensilage, besides 
grain, while the other set (lot B) had dry forage only. The 
uniform grain ration was a mixture of four pounds of corn- 
meal, four pounds wheat bran and one and one-half pounds 
cotton-seed meal, fed in two portions. Lot A received 
iixty pounds ensilage per day, it being of average quality, 
;is per analysis given hereafter, and lot B received twelve 
pounds of cut stover and five pounds cut meadow-hay daily. 
The coarse forage in both cases was fed in two portions, 
one separate from the grain, while at the other time these 
were mixed. The following is the milk record of the two 
lots for the twelve weeks' trial : 



AMERICAN ENSILAGE. 



511 





-t 


•S3 


o-g 


M '- 


SS" . 






, o 








Six Cows— Jbbsets. 




Sg 


<u •- ® 

„^2 


bJDo 












2 S^ 




1^5 


g. 


os.a 

Eh 


< 


< 




lbs. oz. 


lbs. oz. ■ 


lbs. oz. 


lbs. oz. 


lbs. oz. 


Lot A— ensilage 


825 2 


731 12 


9.295 9 


774 10 


18 7 


Lot B— dry feed 


816 6 


722 14 


9.375 5 


781 8 


16 W 







The periodic loss or shrinkage of milk for every division 
of four weeks, comiDaring the quantity on the first and last 
days of these divisions, was as follows (gains marked + and 



Cows. 


January. 


February. 


March. 


Total, 
13 weeks. 


Lot A 


lbs. oz. 

-60 2 
+ 1 


lbs. oz. 

- 8 3 
—24 9 


lbs. oz. 

—25 
—70 6 


lbs. oz. 
93 5 


LotB 


93 15 







As to the quality of the milk from the two lots, these facts 
were ascertained, the figures being averages of the chemical 
and practical tests : 



Six Cows— Jerseys. 




IS 


o 

M 
8 


1=0 


0) 0) 




'3 " 


So 


.5 a 


" p. 

O 


O Q> 






lbs. 


lbs. 




lbs. 


Lot A 


1032 
1029 


14.16 
13.81 


3.95 
3.93 


20^ 
18 


32.9 


Lot B 


20.2 







The butter from the milk of the ensilage-fed cows was 
decidedly better, both in color and flavor, than that from 
the other lot. In April the ensilage was discontinued, and 
lot A put on entirely dry feed, the same as lot B. Then, 



512 



FEEDING ANIMALS. 



after one week's intermission, the two were compared for 
four weeks more with this result : 

Lot A, 687 lbs. oz. milk per week, or 16 lbs. 6 oz. per 
day and cow. 

Lot B, 702 lbs. 2 oz. milk per week, or 16 lbs. 11 oz. per 
day and cow. 

Tracing this trial all through, it is seen that the results 
in quantity of product are slightly in favor of the dry-fed 
cows. But this is offset by the better quality of the butter 
as well as the more thrifty and healthful appearance of the 
animals fed on ensilage. 

The great variation in the chemical composition of corn 
ensilage is shown in the following results of numerous 
analyses : 



Parts in 

100 LBS. 


Water. 


Albumi- 
noids. 


Fat. 


Carbo- 
liydrates. 


Crude 
fibre. 


Ash. 


Maximum 

Minimum 

Average 


84.9 
74.1 
81.4 


1.9 

.9 

1.3 


.9 
.3 
.6 


13.4 
7. 
9.6 


7.9 
4.7 
5.9 


1 4 

1. 

1.2 



It is to be regretted that Mr. Alvord did not note accu- 
rately the weight of each lot of cows at the beginning and 
the end of tiie experiment. This might have shown an 
important difference. He remarks the better quality of 
butter and the better and healthier condition of the cows 
fed on ensilage. These two points alone may furnish a 
very sufficient reason for feeding ensilage instead of dry 
fodder. There are some occult facts that chemistry does 
not as yet explain. Chemists think they have demon- 
strated that grass does not lose materially in nutriment in 
tlie process of drying. But still the great fact remains 
that cattle can be fattened rapidly upon grass, but cannot 
be fattened upon hay. It is practical nonsense to say that 



AMEEICAN" EKSILAGE. 5i;j 

dry food has the same feeding vahie as it had when green 
and succulent. 

There is much yet to learn in reference to the best ensi- 
lage crops, or, rather, it Avill be found that a greater variety 
of green food must be ensilaged, so as to furnish a well- 
balanced ensilage ration. By referring to page 224, analyses 
will be. found of 20 green fodders in a proper condition for 
ensilaging. Dr. Voelcker's analysis shows that ensilage 
does not contain any important quantity of acetic acid, but 
mostly lactic and butyric acids, which may be considered 
helps to digestion. 



ANALYTICAL INDEX. 



Analyses— Grasses and fodder plants, 
146-148, 153-157; by-products, 157, 158; 
ensilage and green foods, 224; skin, 
hair, horn, hoof and wool, 23 ; of fats, 
23; bones, 24; animal bodies, 26, 
milk, 138, 139. 

Animal bodies— Analysis, 26; composi- 
tion, 19; constituents, 24. 

Albuminoids— Animal and vegetable, 33. 

Amides, 32. 

Animal heat, 72, 73. 

Alimentation, principles of, 126. 

Alsike clover and timothy, 191. 

Baby beef, 249-253. 

Barley, as a ration, 397, 398. 

Barns— Duo-decagon, sex-decagon, 89; 
octagonal, 89, 90, 92; octagonal base- 
ment, fig. 8, 91, 93, 94 ; octagonal base- 
ment (circular), fig. 9, 95, 96 ; a 
fifty-foot octagon, 103 ; basement 
walls, 106 ; preparations for laying 
out a wall, 107 ; octagonal wall, 
how to lay out, 107, 103 ; constructing 
boxes for wall, 108, 109 ; proportion 
for water-lime concrete, 110; new 
way of building long barns, 111-113; 
barn for 1,000 head of cattle, 113, 114; 
octagon, eight winged, 114,115; square- 
cross barn, 116-119; basement for 
cattle, 119, 120; laying out the base- 
ment, 120-122 ; sheep barn, 182, 123. 

Beans and oats, 381, .382. 

Bean-meal, as a ration, MSS. 

Beef— Quality of young, 253,254; cost of, 
269-274; what age for, 247; growing cat- 
tle for, 275, 276; to the acre of corn, 311. 

Biliary ducts, 65. 

Bermuda grass, 151. 

Bladder, 74. 

Blood, composition, 80. 



Bone, composition, 23, 34. 

Breeding-sows, care of, 461-463. 

Brewers' grains, 163. 

Bronchi, 70 ; buftalo-p:ra<^s. 280. 

Bulky food for horses, 380-384. 

Calf— Composition of, 26; young, how 
to feed it, 234, 235 ; skim-milk ration, 
236-240; cost at one year, 241, 242; 
whey ration for calf, 242-246 ; hay-tea 
ration, 240, 247 ; baby beef, 249-253 ; 
quality of young beef, 253, 254 ; econ- 
omy of young beef, 255-257. 

Carcass— Constituents, 28; composition, 
29 ; proportion of various parts, 27. 

Carbon, oxidation of, 42, 43; excreted, 76. 

Carbo-hydrates, 34 ; analysis, .39. 

Care of breeding-sows, 401-463. 

Cattle— Number and value, 13 ; propor- 
tion of parts, 27. 

Cattle Feeding, 233, 234 ; how to feed 
the young calf, 234, 235 ; skim-milk 
ration for calf, 236-240 ; cost of calf at 
one year, 241, 242; whey ration for 
calf, with table, 242-246 ; haj'-tea ra- 
tions for calves, 246, 247; what age 
for beef, 247, 248 ; baby beef, 249-253 ; 
quality of young beef, 253, 254 ; econ- 
omy of young beef, 255-257, 

Cattle— Grown for beef, 275-376 ; home 
bred, 276, 277 ; summer feeding, 277 ; 
full feeding in summer, 283-286; full 
feeding in cold weather, 987, 288 ; out- 
door feeding, 288-291. 

Cattle Kations— German standard, 292, 
293 ; waste products in, 200-301. 

Cattle— Rack, 199 ; cost of production, 
260; water remedies in diseases of, 
493-495; garget, 495, 490; puerperal 
or milk fever, 496-498 ; brain fever, 
497 ; inflammation of the lungs, 498. 



51G 



FEEDING ANIMALS. 



Cellulose, 35 ; digestibility, 36. 
Chicago fat-stock show, tables, 358, 259. 
Circulation, 67. 

Clover, as an ensilage crop, 225, 226. 
Clover and corn, as a ration, 297, 298. 
Cob-meal— For pigs, 473, 474; experi- 
ments in feeding, 473, 474. 
Cojcum, horse, 62. 

Cold, effect upon secretion of milk, 84. 
Colon, 63. 

Colt, 362 ; milk ration for, 363, 365, 395 ; 

change of food for, 399 ; exercise for, 

370, 371 ; weight and growth of, 367. 

Composition of food for six cows, 345. 

Coudimental foods, analysis, 312, 314 ; 

how to compound, 314. 
Cooking— Cost of for sheep, 456, 457 ; 
food for hogs, 481-i84 ; philosophy of, 
487-490; will it pay, 490-492; corn 
and stalks together, 307. 
Concrete, preparing for silo, 216-218. 
Corn fodder, 194; starch feed, 163; 

Stowell's evergreen, 309. 
Corn, running it through a cutter, 307 ; 
feeding the crop without husking, 
306-308. 
Corn and beef, beef to the acre, 311. 
Corn-meal for horses, 384 ; wet or dry, 

385, 380 ; for pigs, 465-469. 
Corn ration, improvement of, 310. 
Cotton-seed cake, 140, 141, 161, 162, 265, 
269, 285, 294, 301, 302, 304, 305, 310, 350, 
351, 359, 387, 389, 390, 397, 415, 420. 
Cost of beef, 269-274 ; whole bullock, 
273, 274 ; gain in live weight, 265, 266 ; 
Cost of ensilage, 221, 332. 
Cows— Selection of, 318-321 ; food and 
size of, 321-325; experiments as to 
size, 324 ; as food producers, 338, 339. 
Cow, milch, rations for, 294-297. 
Cow manure, value of, 345, 346. 
Crops, ensilage, 226-229. -' 
Cutting and handling corn, 308-310. 
Cutting crops and filling silo, 231, 232. 
Cutting fodder for sheep, experiments, 
453-456 ; and cooking corn unhusked, 
306-308. 
Dairy cattle, 317 ; feeding, 329-331. 
Dairy cows— Selecting, 318-321 ; size of, 

321-335. 
Deer, domesticated, flavor of flesh, 127. 
Desmodium, 149. 



Development of cattle, early, 130. 

Dextrine, 37. 

Digestion— Salivary, 45, 46 ; gastric, 61 ; 
intestinal, 61. 

Description of grasses, 149. 

Double iucoms from sheep, 405, 406. 

Early maturity, 129; considerations in 
its favor, 131, 132. 

Economy of young beef, 255-257. 

Ensilage, 207-211 ; analysis, 224 ; prog- 
ress in United States, 219, 220; cost 
of ensilage, 221, 232; as a complete 
ration, 223-226 ; ensilage crops, 226- 
239 ; for winter feeding, 435-437 ; stor- 
ing several crops together, 329, 503. 

English view of the cost of beef, 303-264. 

English practice in the dairy, 341, 342. 

English food rations for horses, 393, 394. 

English sheep feeding, 441-444. 

Ewe, milk of, 138. 

Exercise for colts, 370, 371. 

Excrements with sheep, tables, 417-420. 

Experiments— In feeding a heifer, 833- 
3.35 ; German, 335-337 ; German, feed- 
ing horses, 373-374 ; feeding pea-meal, 
383 ; in feeding colts, 368, 369 ; with 
roots, grains and grass, 443-444 ; in 
sheep feeding, 454-456 ; on sheep 
manure, 422-424. 

Excretions — By tissue, lungs and skin, 
74 ; experiment by Stohmann, 75 ; of 
ash constituents, 76, 77 ; experiment 
by Lawes, 80. 

Extra food to fertilize pastures, 359, 360. 

Farm's garden truck, 315, 316. 

Fats, 38, 39. 

Fat— Composition of, 23; how produced, 
339, 340. 

Fatty substances, 43. 

Fatten cows in milk, 343-345. 

Fat stock shows, 258, 259. 

Feeding— Experiments, 343; most profit- 
able before maturity, 132; experi- 
ments, 133, 134 ; too concentrated 
food, 135, 136 ; young animals, 140- 
142 ; under six months old, 142 ; in 
winter, 287, 288 ; out-door, 288, 291 ; 
corn-meal alone, 135-1.37 ; German 
standard of, 292 ; corn crop, 30G-308 ; 
in summer, 277, 278 ; green crops on 
the land, 425,436; regularity in, 439,440; 



ANALYTICAL INDEX. 



617 



Feeding— Young lambs, 445-449; average 
gain, 445; on small farms, 315, 316; 
dairy cattle, 3:2!)-331 ; horses, German 
experiments, 372-374 ; horses, stand- 
ard rations, 374-377; horses for light 
work, 376 horses, practical rations, 
377-380 ■ corn-meal for horses, 385- 
390; corn-meal fed wet or dry, 385, 
386 ; for fast work, 395-399 ; colts for 
full development, 396, 397 ; colts, ex- 
periments, 369, 370; whey to pigs, 
466-468. 

Fish scrap, 164. 

Flesh, without bones, 28. 

Flesh, flavor ot, as aflected by food, 128. 

Flax-seed, 140-142, 235-238, 245, 246, 249, 
295,296, 299, 314, 365, 390, 394, 395, 
39<-, 420. 

Flourens, experiments upon stomachs 
of sheep, 56. 

Foals, weight and growth of, 367-370. 

Fodder vegetables, elements, 50. 

Fodder corn, 194, 195. 

Fodder, cutting and cooking for sheep, 
453-456. 

Food medicines, 501. 

Food tables, 153-158; comments on, 159. 

Foods— "Value per ton, clover hay, aver- 
age meadow hay, corn fodder, oat 
straw, linseed-oil cake, wheat bran, 
corn-meal and oats, 161 ; condimental, 
analysis, 312-314 respiratory, 42^4 ; 
tables for horses, 387, 389 ; tables for 
grain rations, 390-392 ; tables for stage 
horses, 391-394 ; for horses, 371, 372 ; 
for dam, 365-367 bulky, for horses, 
380-384 producer, the cow as a. 338, 
339; how disposed of, 78 ; of produc- 
tion, 346-349- for milk, required, 340. 

Functions of the stomach, 55, 56. 

Gama grass and grama grass, 1.52. 

Garden truck, farm's, 315, 316. 

Garget, water remedy, 495, 496. 

Gastric juice, 49. 

Gastric digestion, 61. 

German feeding standard, cattle rations, 
292. 

German experiments, horse feeding, 
372-374. 

Glands, salivary, parotid, maxillary, 
sub-lingual, molar, labial, palatine, 46. 



Grain, ash, constituents of, 41. 

Grains, analysis of, 140. 

Grain, cost of feeding, 264-266. 

Granary, place for it, 105. 

Grass, as a part of ration for pigs, 468, 
469. 

Grasses and Fodder Plants— Analysis 
of, 146-148 ; desmodium, Japsm clover, 
149 ; Mexican clover, satin grass, 
Shrader's grass, 150 ; Bermuda grass, 
the crab grasses, Texas millet, quack 
grass, 151; wire grass, gama grass, 
grama grass, 152 ; money value, 153, 
158 ; comments on tables, 159, 160. 

Green crops for sheep, 425-435. 

Green fodder, ash constituents, 40. 

Growing cattle for beef, 275-278. 

Hair, composition, 23. 

Hay, ash constituents, 40. 

Hay-tea rations for calf, 246, 247. 

Heat, animal, 72. 

Heart-beats, pulse, 67-69. 

Herd grass or red top, 357. 

Home-bred cattle, 376, 277. 

Hoof, horn, hair, 23. 

Horses— Number, value, 13; horses, 361; 
food for dam, 365-367; food for, 371,372; 
oats and beans, as a ration for, 381-382; 
bulky food, 380-384 ; pea-meal, as a 
ration for, 383, 384; corn-meal for, 
384-390 malt sprouts for feed, 388, 
389 ; grain ration for, 390-392; ration 
for stage, 391-394 ; tables for same, 
392, 393 ; stable feeding during winter 
for, 393, 394 ; feeding for fast work, 
395-399; skim-milk for colts, 395; 
water treatment for horses, 498; 
wounds, bruises, sprains and simple 
cut wounds, 498, 499 ; sprained ankle, 
499, 500; treatment for colic, 500; food 
medicines, 501. 

How to introduce soiling, 205, 807. 

How to feed young calf, 234, 235. 

How to feed the corn crop, 306-308. 

How fat is produced, 339, 340. 

How to feed young animals, 137-142. 

Hungarian grass, 193. 

Hydrogen excreted, 76. 

Improper feeding, 137. 

Improvement of the corn ration, 310. 

Intestinal digestion, 61. 



518 



FEEDING ANIMALS. 



Intestines— Of ruminants, 63; of the 
pig, 63 ; proportion in pig, sheep and 
ox, 64. 

Introduction, 13. 

Italian millet, 193. 

Japan clover, 149, 150. 

June grass or blue grass, 278, 357. 

Kidneys, 73. 

Lambs— Fat composition, 26; feeding 
young, 444-449 ; gain of one year, 445; 
Paulet's experiments, with various 
kinds of food, 445-448; experiments 
with roots, grain and grass, 441-444. 

Lands, sheep on worn-out, 424, 425. 

Land, feeding green crops on the, 425. 

Linseed and cotton-seed cake, 301-306. 

Linseed-oil meal, 236, 241, 243, 244, 267, 
271, 272, 285, 295, 301, 303-305, 311, 314, 
333, 343, 350, 351, 354,359, 365,366,368, 
369, 387, 389, 415, 420, 429, 454, 455, 464, 
467. 

Liver, 64. 

Long barns, new way to build, 111-113. 

Lucerne, 189, 190. 

Lungs, 71. 

Malt-sprouts, 164 ; for horse feed, 388. 

Managing a flock of sheep, 437-439. 

Management of pastures, 278-281. 

Manure — Value of, 77 ; in proportion to 
the ration, 78, 79 : value of from dif- 
lerent foods, 80-82 ; from fattening 
cattle, 266-268 ; from sheep, 421-424. 

Mare, milk of, 138. 

Mastication, 45. 

Maturity, early, 129. 

Meat scrap, 164. 

Medicine, food as, 501. 

Method of feeding pigs, 482, 483. 

Mexican clover, 150. 

Milch Cows— Number, value, 13 ; water 
for, 352-355 ; rations for, 894. 

Milk— Composition, cow, mare and ewe, . 
138; analysis of ash in 1,000 lbs., 139; 
effect of soiling upon it, 176 ; ration, 
at Eldena, table, 325-328 ; special feed- 
ing for, 331-335 ; composition of 0,000 
lbs., 339 ; variety of food for, .340, 341; 
American rations for, 349-351 ; ration 
for colts, 363-365 ; skimmed for colts, 
395 ; yielded by sows. 463. 464 ; fever, 
water remedy for, 496-498. 



Millet- Texas, 151 ; common, 192, 193 ; 
for pasture, 431, 432. 

Millet meal, 398. 

Mode of cutting and handling corn, 
308-310. 

Mules, number, value, 13. 

Muscles, composition of, 22. 

New way to build long barns, 111-113. 

Nostrils, 69. 

Nutrient, 30. 

Nutrients— Nitrogenous, 31; non-nitrog- 
enous, 34 ; inorganic, 39 ; in foods, 40. 

Oats, 397. 

Oats and beans for horses, 381, 382. 

Oats and peas. 192. 

Objections to soiling, labor, 181. 

Octagon barn, 88; adapted to all-sized 
farms, 102 ; cost of a fifty-foot, 104. 

ffisophagean demi-canal, 53. 

Offal, 25. 

Orchard grass, 189. 

Organic elements, 19. 

Out-door feeding, 288. 

Oxen, hard-worked, rations, 305, 306. 

Ox, half-fat, fat, composition, 26. 

Palpitation, 69. 

Pancreas, 06. 

Pastures for Dairy Cows— Variety of 
grasses. .356-359; management of, 278- 
281; temporary, 281-283; peas, as a 
crop for, 439-431 ; millet for pasture, 
431 ; grasses, blue grass or June grass 
wire grass, 278 ; rough-stalked mead 
ow grass, meadow fescue, sheep fes 
cue, orchard grass, 279 ; red-top or 
herds grass, sweet-scented vernal 
grass, blue-joint, broom-grass, buffalo 
grass, 280 ; extra food to fertilize 
359, 369. 

Peas and oats, 192, 228. 

Pea-meal, as a ration, 383, 384, 398. 

Peas, as a pasture crop, 429-431. 

Pectin substances, 37-39. 

Pectoral cavity, 70. 

Peritoneum, 48. 

Peyerian gland, 63. 

Philosophy of cooking food, 487-490. 

Pig— Intestines of, 63 ; store, fat, com- 
position, 26; in winter, 470-472 ; corn- 
meal for, 465-460 ; cob-meal for, 472- 
474; selecting for fattening, 486, 187. 



ANALTTICAL INDEX. 



519 



Potash, excreted, 77. 
Production, food of, 346-349. 
Products manufactured, 41. 
Prof. Horsfairs ration, 34.3-345. 
Profitable feeding must be done before 

maturity, 133. 
Progress of ensilage in United States, 

219, 220. 

Protein, 33. 

Ptyalin, 46. 

Puerperal or milk fever, water remedy, 
496-498. 

Pulse — How to find it, 67 ; difi'erent 
kinds, 68. 

Quack grass, 151. 

Quality of young beef, 253, 254. 

Rack for cattle, 199. 

Rack for sheep, 124. 

Rape, 155-158, 224, 43.3-435. 

Ration, 30; for cattle, 292, 293; for 
milch cows, 294-297 ; for fattening 
cattle, 304, 305 ; for oxen at hard work, 
305, 306 ; for milk, at Eldeua, 325-3C8 ; 
for milk cow, English, 342; Prof. 
Horsfall's, 343-345 ; for milk, Ameri- 
car. 349-351; of milk for colts, 304, 
365 ; standard, for feeding horses, 374- 
377; practical, 377-380 ; for sheep, 415; 
variety of, 436 ; for young pigs, 464- 
466 ; grass as part of the, 468-469. 

Red clover, 188, 225, 357. 

Respiratory foods, 42-44. 

Respiration, 69. 

Respiratory products, 76. 

Remastication, 47. 

Reticulum, .58. 

Roots, ash constituents, 41. 

Roots, for sheep feeding, 432, 433. 

Roots, grains and grass, experiments, 
441-444. 

Rumination, 58 ; conditions essential to, 
60. 

Ruminants, intestines of, 63. 

Running corn through a cutter, ,307. 

Rye, winter, 186-188, 398, 426, 427. 

Saliva, 45. 

Salivary glands, 46. 

Satin grass, Shrader's grass, 150. 

Seeds, ash constituents, 41. 

Self-cleaning stable, 97-101. 



Sheep — Number, value, 14 ; proportion 
of parts, 27 ; store, half-fat, fat, extra 
fat, composition, 26, 29 ; rack, 123, 
124; shelter, 125; husbandry, 401, 402 ; 
feeding in New Jersey, 402-404 ; prof- 
its of feeding, 403 ; lambs raised for 
market, 404 ; double income, fleece 
and lambs, 405, 406 ; early maturity, 
406-408; growth in early lambs, 407, 
408 ; selection of sheep for breeding, 
408-411 ; Bakewell improving the Lei- 
cester, 409, 410; result of crossing 
Sonthdowns and Cotswolds, 410, 411 ; 
summer feeding of small flocks, 411- 
413 ; hurdle feeding, 413-415 ; fertil- 
izing the field, 414 ; sheep ration, 415 ; 
compensation for food in manure, 
415^20 ; amount of food elements in 
manure, 416 ; table of Dr. Wolff"'s 
experiments and others, 417-420; value 
of solid and liquid excrement, 421 ; an 
experiment, 422-424 ; on worn-out 
lands, 424,425; feeding green crops 
oil the land, 425, 426 ; winter rye, 426, 
4-27 ; winler vetch, 427-429 ; peas, as a 
past;;; c i rop, 429^31 ; millet for past- 
ure, 431, 432 ; roots for sheep feeding, 
432, 433 ; rape, 433-435 ; ensilage for 
winter feeding, 435 ; managing a flock, 
437-439 ; regularity in feeding, 439, 440. 

Sheep Feeding— English, 441^44 ; ex- 
periments with roots, grains and 
grass, 442-444 ; feeding young Iambs, 
444—149 ; average gain, 445. 

Sheep Feeding — German experiments, 
449-453; table of amount of food, 450; 
experiments by Stohmann, with table, 
450, 451 ; effect of age and weight on 
the growth of a lamb, 452 ; table per 
100 lbs. live weight, 453 ; cutting and 
cooking fodder for, 453 ; experiments, 
454-456 ; cost of steaming, 456, 457. 

Size of dairy cows, 321-325. 

Silos, 212, 213; plan of silo, 213; triple 
silo, 214 ; building the silo, 215, 216 ; 
preparing the concrete, 21G-21S ; cut- 
ting crop and filling silo, 231, 2.32; 
sorghum, 195 ; storing several ensilage 
crops together, 229, 2.30. 

Skin — Composition, 23 ; respiratory ac- 
tion, 71. 



520 



FEEDING ANIMALS. 



Skim-milk ration for calves, 236, 240, 336. 

Soda excreted, 77. 

Soiling, 167, 168 ; saving land, 169-171 ; 
saving fences, 171, 172; saving food, 
172, 173 ; saving manure, 174 ; effect 
upon health and condition, 174, 175 ; 
effect of soiling upon milk. I'i6-178; 
effect on meat production, 179-181 ; 
objections to soiling, labor, 181, 182 ; 
an experiment, 182, 183 ; cost of labor 
for 100 head, 184-186 ; horses, 197, 
198; cattle, 198-200; cows, 200-202 ; 
sheep, 202-204 ; exterminates weeds, 
205, 206 ; how to introduce it, 205, 206; 
winter soiling, 207 ; system for swine, 
469, 470. 

Soiling Crops— Winter rye, 186, 187, 426; 
red clover, 188; orchard grass, lucerne, 
189, 190; timothy and large clover, 190; 
alsike clover and timothy, green oats, 
191, 192 ; peas and oats, common mil- 
let, 192, 193 ; Hungarian grass, Italian 
millet, 195; vetch, fodder corn, 194, 
195 ; sorghum, 195 ; how to use green 
crops, 195, 196. 

Special feeding for milk, 331-335. 

Spleen, 66. 

Stable— Self-cleaning, platform, flg. 10, 
97, 98 ; grating, figs. 11, 12 and 13, 99- 
101 ; self-cleaning, for pigs, 480, 481. 

Starch, dissolved by boiling, 36, 37. 

Standard ration for feeding horses, 374- 
377. 

Steamed food, 296. 

Stock barns, 84. 

Stock industry, capital invested, 14. 

Stock foods, 143 ; nutritive ingredients, 
144. 

Stomach— Of solipeds, 47 ; and intes. 
tines, illustration, 48 ; of ruminants 
and their functions, 49, 55, 56 ; Prof. 
Law on, 50; first, 50, 51; second, 51,52 
oesophagean demi-caual,53; third, 53 
fourth, 55 ; external appearance, 54 
internal appearance, 57 ; proportion 
in different animals, 64. 

Stowell's evergreen corn, 360. 

Straw, ash coastituents, 41. 

Study the natftre of the fijiimal we feed, 

135. 
;8ugar8, 37, 



Swine— Proportion of parts, 27 ; num- 
ber, value, 14; composition, 29; prod- 
ucts of the pig exported, 458-460; care 
of breeding sows, 461, 462 ; clover and 
grass, proper food, 461, 472 ; milk 
richer than the cow's, 462; weight of 
pigs at birth, 463 ; milk yield by dam, 
463,464; ration for young pig, 464- 
466; feeding whey to pigs, 466-468; 
grass as a part of the ration, 468, 460; 
soiling system for swine, 469, 470 ; the 
pig in winter, 470-472 ; cob-meal as a 
pig food, 472-474 ; swine-house, 474- 
479 ; the old storing system, 471 ; an- 
other plan of swine-house, 479, 480; 
a self-cleaning pen for, 480, 481 ; cook- 
ing hog food, 481-484 ; no storing 
period, 484, 485 ; fattening period, 
485, 486 ; selecting pigs for fattening, 
487 ; philosophy of cooking food, 487- 
490 ; will it pay to cook for hogs, 490- 
492 ; experiments in cooking, 488-490. 

Table— Of food supply to six cows for 
191 days, and composition, 345 ; of 
milk rations, 350, 351 ; of food for 
horse, 387-389. 

Temperature, feeding animals, 85. 

Temporary pastures, 281-283. 

Texas millet, 151. 

Thorax, 70. 

Timothy and large clover, 190 

Trachea, 69. 

Trypsin, 66. 

Urinary organs, 73 ; ureters, kidneys, 
bladder, urethra, 74. 

Uses of water in diseases of cattle, 493- 
495 ; garget, fever and inflammation, 
494. 

Value of manure, 77. 

Value of manure of fattening cattle, 
267-269. 

Value of cow manure, 345, 346. 

Variety of food for milk, 340, 341. 

Variety of grasses, 355-359. 

Vernal sweet-scented grass, 280, 368. 

Vegetable albuminoids, 33. 

Vetch, 194, 398, 427-429. 

Waste products, 162 ; corn-starch foods, 
brewer's grains, 163 ; malt sprouts, 
meat scrap, fish scrap, 164, 165; in 
cattle rations, 299-301. 



ANALYTICAL INDEX. 



521 



Water — Composition, 19; for milch cow, 
352-355 ; remedies, 493 ; uses of, in 
the diseases of cattle, 493-495 ; gar- 
get, 495, 496 ; puerperal or mUk fever, 
496-498 ; treatment for horses, 498 ; 
wounds, bruises, sprains and simple 
cut wounds, 498, 499 ; sprained ankle, 
499, 500; treatment for colic, 500; 
food medicines, 501. 

Weight and growth of foals, 367-370. 

Weight of pigs at birth, 463. 

What age for beef, 247-249. 

Whey rations for the calf, 242-246. 

Whey feeding to pigs, 466-468. 



Whole cost of the bullock, 273, 274. 

Winter rye, 186, 187. 

Winter soiling, 207-211. 

Wire grass, 278. 

Woody fibre, effect of heat and acid 

upon it, 35. 
Wolflf's tables, 153-158 ; comments on 

the tables, 159. 
Wool, 23. 

Young animals, how to feed them, 137. 
Young calf, how to feed them, 234. 
Youatt's ration for work horses, 371, 

372. 
Yonng pigs, rations for, 464-466. 




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If you wish to use the best, do not fail to give it a trial. 



mntlT Y T^TPT^'MS Awarded by the Vermont Stiite Pair for Butter Color 
Ul'.Lil Uiru.-'lfm ■^\ras given this Color, at the Fair held September 
12-15, 1882. 

THE -A. ID "V ^A^ IsT T -A. G- E S .A.E,E: 

It will not Color the Butter-Milk I 
It will not Turn Rancid ! 

It Gives a Brighter Color I 

It is the Cheapest Color Made I 

It has these good qualities because it is the strongest and brightest 
color, and because it is prepared in a specially refined Oil by a process 
which makes it impossible for it to become rancid. 

DO NOT FAIL TO GIVE IT A TRIAL. 

Thousands of tests have been made, and they always prove it the best. Be- 
meniber, it is not our old Perfected Butter Color, but an entirely new one, greatly 
superior, and warranted better than any other. 

Beware of All Imitations, and of all other oil colors, for every other one is 
liable to become rancid, and spoil the butter into which it is put. Ask for Wells, 
Richardson & Co.'S Improved Color, and take no other. If you cannot get it, 
write to us to know where and how to get it without extra expense. 



WE GIVE DOUBLE THE SIZE WE HAVE FORMERLY GIVEN, 

Thereby making this the cheapest, as well as the best, Color ever offered 
Butter Makers. 



3P3RIC3E IJ.IST7. 

Sample Bottles, 1 oz. to color 100 pounds. 
Small Size, 4 oz. " 500 

Medium Size, 10 oz. " 1250 " 

Large Size, 24 oz. " 2800 

t^F" For Sale by Druggists and Merchants Generally, 



$0.10 
0.25 
0.50 
1.00 



If they do not have it, ask them to order it from their Wholesale Druggists 

or Grocers. 
To COLOR MILK for CHEESE, Etc., USE OUR OLD PERFECTED BUTTER COLOR 

THE BEST COLOR MADE FOR THAT PURPOSE. 

BURLINGTON, Vt. 




COOLEY 

CREMER 




They have prove d to be superior to all other Milk Setting and Cream 

Raising Apparatus. Their success is without a parallel. 

They are Self -Skimming. 

FIVE GOLD MEDALS and SEVEN SILVER MEDALS 

Awarded for superiority. They raise more Cream ; Thej" make better 

Butter. They are made in four styles, all sizes, 

for Factory or Dairy use. 




imi! GEM 



Contains no inside Float.s or Paddles ; 
Churns toy agitating the full mass; 
"Works Easier ; Makes 3Iore and Better Butter ; Is Easier 
to Clean than any other. Cover Never Falls Out. 

WAS AWARDED FIRST PREMIUM 

AT ONLY PRACTICAL TEST EVER HELD BY THE 

And the Silver Medal at the Western NeAv York Fair, at 

Rochester, September, 18S2. 



THE 



BUTTER WORKER. 




Works the butter thoroughly without injuring the grain. Is used by 
the best dairymen. A 

Full Line of Batter Factory Supplies 

1^" SEND POSTAL FOR CIRCULAR AND TESTIMONIALS. 



VERMONT FARM MACHINE GO. 

BELLO^VS FALLS, Vt. 



"'E d 



M 






i B I 




And Complete Manufacturing- Outfits. 

Pat. Gang Cheese Presses. Self Bandaging Cheese Hoops, Cheese Vats, Patent Creamery 
Vats, Curd Sinks. Curd Mills. Curd Knives. Churns, Butter Workers, Rennet and 
Ann'atto Jars, Fairbanks' Scales, Cheese Screws and Hoops. 

All i'oy;ilties paid. Inventors and manufacturers of very best Cheese and Butter 
Apparatus. Twin Cueamers for Farmers and Factories, winning in all, 
Tests. Yields more Cream and Butter than ant others. Simple, durable, 
valuable. Acid buttermilk and skim-milk saved, CHEESE EXTRACT makes 
finest skim-milk clieese. Arliflciul Cream. Send for new Catalogue. 

ANNATTOINE, THE STANDARD CHEESE COLORING 
ASHTON & HICCINCS' SALT. 

Visit our Creameries, Cheese Factories, Bnrns and Silos. 

BUURELL & WHITMAN, Little FaUs, N. Y. 

!EX ^^ 20" SS "n i^ ' gap 

DANISH LIQUID BUTTER COLOR 

Forty-Six Highest Prizes. Three Gold Medals at World's Fairs. 
Vegetable Oil. Colors the Finest Butter made in Europe. Fast superseding all 
other Coloring made in America. Dues not color the buttermilk. Butter beautiful. 
Greatly enhances value. No Alkali. Dozen bottles and directions Fi-ee to Drug- 
gists or Dealers. HANSEN'S EXTRACT OF RENNET and STANDARD 
CHEESE COLOR. No manufacturer or re-packer can aftbrd to neglect Danish 
preparations. 

slRTinCIslI, CREAM CHEESE, 

Four lbs. butter first taken from each 100 lbs. milk, then adding 1 lb. of table or 
salad oil to eacli 100 Ids. of skim-mi!k, and getting as the result, 1)4 lbs, of cheese. 
Sample Cheeses sent to the Secretary of the Roy^d Agricultural Society, London, 
Eng.. calls forth the following from the editor of the London Ac/ricitltiiral Gazette: 
— " That anyone can expect, or even wish, to discourage the introduction into^his 
country of such capital food as the American farmers thus oifer us, is impossible." 
London, April 24, 18^-'. 

p Fi e: s e:r v^^AlI^zn s. 

Patented in Europe, Germany and America. Approved by practical men for 
keeping Milk, Cream, Buttermilk, Butter, etc., sweet. .Warranted harmless, pure 
and cheap. 

PRESERV ALINE will keep milk sweet from four to six days in hot weather, 
so that all the Cream can be obtained and the skim-milk still left sweet, to make 
into Cheese, or for other uses. 

Our vats are beating any device used for this purpose in the world, so far as we 
know, and with them we have obtained an average for the entire season, from 
April 1st to November 1.5th, of over 4 lbs. of l)utter from each 100 lbs. of milk, 
leaving the m Ik perfectly sv,-eet, anc' \r the best possible condition to use for 
cheese. Other parties have obtained : li. of butter from 22 lbs. of milk as the ave- 
rage for the entire season, setting the milk 24 and 36 hours. This has'notbeen 
equalled by any other system of raising cream in use in this country, which is prac- 
tical in large creameries. It saves one-half the labor over the Cooler and Pail 
system. 

BUBRELL &. WHITMAN 

LITTLE FALLS, N. Y. 



"CYCLE" 

CUTTERS. 

Either foi- dry fodder or 
ensilage. Are effective, la- 
bor-saving and safe. The 
facility of adjustment, sim- 
plicity of parts, and freedom 
from breakage by stones, 
impossibility of clogging, all 
commend to the prudent 
farmer. They are instan- 
taneously stopped from 
either side. 

:F'OTJI^ SIZES: $50.00 TO $175.00. 

The largest size is equal in capacity to any "Giant." They are so 
well made that they do not jar, even at very high speed. 




( ONE PAIR OP GEAR WHEELS.) 

The "Cycle" Cutter. 




THE 



im mm 

Is the Right One ! 



It adjusts to kind of soil and 
^^;,, works horizontally, as well to 

inequalities of ground. It lev- 
els, pulverizes, crushes out clods, smooths surface. It folds for riding on 
road, and then is an excellent Corn Marker. By removing a portion 
of the blades, it cultivates two rows of corn, &c. And all this for 
the moderate price of $2-l:.00 at New York. 

WE ALSO MANUFACTURE 



Same Pattern and Price aa 
Indiana Chilled Plows. 



Steel Swivel Plows ; Horse Powers and Steam Engines ; Field 
Rollers and Lawn Rollers; Farm Mills; Cider Mills. 

TH^ N^W YORK PUOW CO. 

No. 55 Beekman Street, NEW YORK. 



Ensilage Congress Proceedings, 1882 and 1883, 30 cents each. 
For South Seed Corn, best for ensilage, per bushel, $1.50 to $2.50. 



SELF-GLEANING STABLE. 



All dairymen woald like to be relieved of the daily labor of cleaning the stable, 
and especially would prize a device that will keep the cow clean, insuring clean and 
wholesome milk. There have been various plans of using a gutter behind cows or 
cattle ; but in all of them the cow was liable to get soiled on tlie flank, and the tail 
would fall into the gutter, and render the milking disagreeable and the milk foul. 
If, therefore, a platform can be made, which requires nothing to aid it in keeping 
the cow clean, provides for her comfort, is self-acting, durable and cheap, there 
would seem to be little left to accomplish in this matter. 



The Self- Cleaning Grating 

fiivented by Prof. E. W. Stewart, does all this, and has been in use in his octagonal 
barn basement for the last five years, accommodating forty cows. The wooden 
part of the platform is situated next the manger, 3 feet 4 inches wide, and is usually 
raised 8 to 12 inches above the basement floor. Behind this is the iron grating, rest- 
ing on the back side of the gutter. — Fig. 1. The gutter or receptacle for manure is 
under this iron grating, and is made of such depth as is desired, usually about 16 
inches below the floor, and raised 8 inches above the floor, making a depth of 2 
feet. This depth is convenient for shoveling out manure when carrying to field. 
This reservoir is concreted or otherwise made tight, so as to hold all the liquid 
manure. If the width of the cow's stall is 3 feet 2 inches, and the gutter is 3 feet 
wide, it will hold nearly one yard under each animal. This will hold the droppings 
of a large cow for about four weeks. The iron joists are placed 18>^ inches apart, 
if the stall is to be 3 feet 2 inchea wide, across these at right angles are laid 
wrought-iron bars, one and a half inches wide. There are 11 of these flat bars 
placed one and five-eighth inches apart, which makes the grating 3 feet 3 inches 
wide. 

The animal should stand with the forefeet upon the plank, and the hind feet 
upon the flat iron bars. — Fig. 2. The droppings fall directly through the openings 
into the gutter below, when the manure is thin ; and in winter, when dry food is 
given, the droppings fall through from the treading of the hind feet, so as to keep 
the bars clear of manure. The cow stands across the bars, and has always two 
bars to stand upon ; some large cow's feet reaching the third bar. Cows that have 
stood on this grating, for five years, ha\ e been very healthy with no trouble from 
the feet. 

The plan which is preferred, is to build the wall of the receptacle for manure as 
highas the under side of the grating, and let the back sideof the grating rest upon this 
wall. — Fig. 1. The front side of the grating is fastened to the wooden platform by 
eye-bolts, and turns up. — See Fig. 3. 

This grating, made of the best wrought-iron ( weighs about 100 His. per cow ), 
strong enough to hold cattle of any weight, ail leady to be screwed by the eye-bolts 
to the wooden platform, will be shipped at $6.00 per cow. This low price is now 
made for the purpose of introducing it among dairymen. 



Points for the Self-Cleaning Platform, 



First.— It keeps the cows clean— a very difficult thing to do with any othei 
stable, even with a moderate amount of bedding, whilst this requires no bedding. 

Second. — It saves all tlie ordinary labor of cleaning the stable, which cannot be 
estimated at less than $3.00 per cow per year, and this would pay the whole cost in 
three years. 

Third.— It completely saves all the liquid manure, or more than doubles the 
value of the manure, and the value of this liquid manure is worth the whole cost of 
the grating in a single yeur. 

Fourth,— The saving in bedding, in villages and cities, will fully pay for the 
grating every year. 

Fifth. — It prevents wholly the rotting of the wood work of a stable, as the liquid 
falls through the grating and does not come in contact with the floor, joists or sills- 
It often costs more to re-sill a barn, where the liquid'^ of the stable have rotted it, 
than this grating costs. 

Sixth. — This self-cleaning platform may be used in any stable which does not 
freeze, and all stables may be repaired so as not to freeze ; besides no dairyman 
can afford to keep cows in a cold stable. 

Seventh. — This self-cleaning stable is most admirably adapted to the Ensilage 
system of feeding, which gives succulent food the year through. Winter daii^ing 
will be promoted by this system, because the same succulent food may be given in 
winter as summer, and this grating will keep the cows clean, however thin the 
manure. 

Eighth.— The undersigned, sole agents and manufacturers of this self-cleaning 
stable, have adapted it to pig-pens, and with it pigs are kept absolutely clean. 

Should be glad to hear from you. Will give you further special instructions 
about putting it in your stable when you give us a statement of your situation. 

Address : 

Stewart Brothers, 

LAKE VIEW, Erie Co., N. Y. 



RE^KKRKNCKS 



Mr. E. T. HAYDEN, of Syracuse, N. Y., writes with reference to the form 

represented in Fig. 1, 

Gentlemen— ''In regard to the 'self-cleaning floor' purchased of you, I can say 
that I am more than pleased with it. I think I save enough in bedding and labor of 
cleaning, besides the manure saved, in one year to pay for it. I absorb all the 
urine with muck, and thi- prevents all odor, and turns the muck into excellent 
manure. I do not think that a quarter of a pound of manure adheres to my eight 
cows and heifers in a month. I would not try to do xjoithout this grating again." 

Mr. CHARLES W. FOSTER, Fostoria, Ohio, writes : 

"I find your self-cleaning grating gives me clean cows, a clean stable, and in fact, 
is all I expected, and more too." 



Mr. EDWIN ALLEN, of New Brunswick, N. J., writes : 

"Have had my sixteen cows on your grating many months, and find it only neces- 
sary to clean gutter once a month. It is a splendid arrangement to save all the 
manure^ which I cart directly to the field before the valuable salts are washed out 
by rains. The cows do not object to standing or lying on it. They stand and get 
up much easier from this floor being level, instead of slanting as in the old way. 
I use plaster, and sweepings from a button factory, as an absorbent and deodorizer 
for manure. Shall order grating for another row of cows next season." [ He has 
just ordered for sixteen more cows.] 




Fig. 1. 

EXPLANATION : A, iron anchor ; B, grated floor j 
C, concrete ; D, manger ; E. sill. 




Pig. 2. 




Fiff. 3* 



CN\ 



^« 



/ 



